Psychology definitions written in plain English without all the confusing psychology jargonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossaryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eric+Berne
The adult-like state is the final ego state which incorporates all the three states, for instance, “I choked while talking with a full mouth, I should obey mother”. To help the client, he is taught to change his unhealthy ego state by enhancing his adult state. Hence, he can be more accountable for his behavior and keep track of his growth in an environment of acceptance, safety, and respect.

This was developed by Eric Berne, a Canadian-born psychiatrist, in the 1950s. Berne combined Freud’s theory with his own observations regarding human interaction. He defined “transaction” as the basic unit of social interaction. Our ego states are reflected by how we communicate with others. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transactional+Analysis+%28TA%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Congestive+Heart+Failure+%28CHF%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autoregression
They may appear on the extremities, buttocks, or all over the body. These fatty growths vary in size, they may be as small as pinheads or as big as grapes. Normally, xanthomas are not painful but they may be itchy and tender. This is often caused by high levels of lipids or fats. Xanthoma may be a symptom of certain diseases such as high blood cholesterol, diabetes, hypothyroidism, cancer, and medication side effects. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=XanthomasFarber’s disease, which is characterized by progressive tissue damage, is caused by a deficiency or malfunction of ceramidase. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ceramidase
However, object relations theory specifies that the super-ego is present at birth, also the ego is in its primitive state which continues to develop overtime. In addition, Jane Loevinger Weissman, an American developmental psychologist, suggested that ego development ("insert link") is composed of nine phases: pre-social, impulsive, self-protective, conformist, self-aware, conscientious, individualistic, autonomous, and integrated. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego+Formationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jane+Loevinger+Weissman
Although each specific drug has a certain effect, these recreational drugs are taken to enhance sensory stimulation and enhance sensuality. Users are often after their euphoric and intoxicating effect, and ability to lower inhibition. However the side effects of club drugs include increase in blood pressure, dehydration, confusion, hallucination, delusion, panic attacks, and addiction. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Club+Drugs
The most common symptom of GERD is heartburn, also called acid indigestion, which usually occurs after eating and might be worse at night. Other symptoms include difficulty swallowing, regurgitation of food or sour liquid, sensation of a lump in your throat, chronic cough, laryngitis and nausea. Many people, including pregnant women, suffer from heartburn or acid indigestion caused by GERD. Many pregnant women experience daily heartburn. Recent studies show that GERD in infants and children is more common than previously recognized and may produce recurrent vomiting, coughing, and other respiratory problems. The severity of GERD depends on LES dysfunction as well as the type and amount of fluid brought up from the stomach and the neutralizing effect of saliva.

One common cause of acid reflux disease is a stomach abnormality called a hiatal hernia. This occurs when the upper part of the stomach and LES move above the diaphragm. Dietary and lifestyle choices may contribute to GERD. Certain foods and beverages, including chocolate, peppermint, fried or fatty foods, coffee, or alcoholic beverages, may trigger reflux and heartburn. Studies show that cigarette smoking relaxes the LES. Obesity and pregnancy can also play a role in GERD symptoms.

Doctors recommend lifestyle and dietary changes for most people with GERD, like avoiding the foods and beverages that trigger symptoms or taking steps to lose weight with exercise and diet changes for overweight or obese people. Medical treatment usually aims at decreasing the amount of reflux or reducing damage to the lining of the esophagus from refluxed materials to prevent complications of frequent acid reflux. Some people may require surgery but are done only as a last resort after medical treatment has proven to be inadequate. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=GERD+%28Gastroesophageal+Reflux+Disease%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aase+Syndrome+%28Aase-Smith+Syndrome%29
For instance, the process of making a simple peanut butter sandwich is broken down into the following steps:

1. Getting 2 pieces of loaf bread. 2. Getting the peanut butter jar. 3. Getting a spoonful of peanut butter. 4. Spreading the peanut butter on the loaf bread. 5. Putting the bread slices together.

The teacher will then perform steps 1 to 4 and let the child put the bread slices together. Afterwards, the teacher will again perform steps 1 to 3 and will let the child continue from step 4 until 5. The process goes on until the child is able to learn and perform all of the steps. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Backward+Chaining
For example, 1 to 2 chips will make the patient receive a small chocolate bar; 3 to 4 chips means having a medium candy bar, 4 to 5 chips is having a slice of his favorite pizza, 6 chips means having 1 ½ slices of pizza, and 7 chips is equated to having 2 slices of pizza and having a medium candy bar. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Backup+Reinforcerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autopsychic+Delusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deterrent+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Directive+Discipline
For instance, a family myth which narrates a “happy family with cheerful gatherings and pleasant relationships” is helpful in preserving satisfaction and integrity. However, believing in this myth too rigidly hides realistic family conflicts, empty depression, or relationship concerns that needs to be addressed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+MythologyCardomegaly.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enlarged+HeartBert Hellinger.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anton+HellingerFamilial Portuguese Polyneurotic Amyloidosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transthyretin+Familial+Amyloid+PolyneuropathyFamilial Portuguese Polyneurotic Amyloidosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Swiss+Type+Amyloid+PolyneuropathyFamilial Portuguese Polyneurotic Amyloidosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Familial+Amyloid+PolyneuropathyFamilial Portuguese Polyneurotic Amyloidosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Portuguese+Polyneuritic+AmyloidosisFamilial Portuguese Polyneurotic Amyloidosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Corino+De+Andrade%92s+DiseaseFamilial Portuguese Polyneurotic Amyloidosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transthyretin+AmyloidosisFamilial Portuguese Polyneurotic Amyloidosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transthyretin-Related+Hereditary+AmyloidosisKlippel-Trenaunay-Weber Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemangiectatic+HypertrophyKlippel-Trenaunay-Weber Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Angioosteohypertrophy+SyndromeEncephalofacial Angiomatosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sturge-Weber-Dimitri+SyndromeEncephalofacial Angiomatosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parkes-Weber+SyndromeEncephalofacial Angiomatosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kalischer+SyndromeFarber's Lipogranulomatosis. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ceramidase+DeficiencyFarber's Lipogranulomatosis. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Farber%27s+Diseasehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Port+Wine+Stainhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encephalofacial+Angiomatosis+%28Sturge-Weber+Syndrome%29Congential Nevus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Congenital+Melanocyte++Nevus+%28CMN%29Fumarase Deficiency.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fumaric+Aciduriahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+Constellationshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=FalsificationSigmund Freud’s theory which states that the ego begins to develop after the id, which is the pleasure principle, during the first three years of life. Furthermore, Fairbairn explained that the ego eventually splits to form the “central ego” (reality principle which is similar with Freud’s concept of the ego), “libidinal ego” (similar with the id), and the “antilibidinal ego” (corresponds to Freud’s superego). Fairbairn theorized that these three kinds of ego are our inner voices. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fairbairnian+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=False+Positivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+Disorder+Of+Infancy+Or+Early+ChildhoodGustav Fechner, a German philosopher, physicist, and experimental psychologist. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fechner%27s+Paradoxhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fechner%27s+Law
There are two classifications: simple and complex. Simple febrile seizures are the most common which lasts from a few seconds to 15 minutes. This is not confined to one body part and does not recur within 24 hours. Complex febrile seizures last longer than 15 minutes and recur within 24 hours which may be located in a certain body part. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Febrile+Seizurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Febrile+Delirium
“Fan” refers to the concept’s multiple associations or network of ideas which seem to form a fan when illustrated through a diagram. This phenomenon was studied by John R. Anderson, a Canadian-born American Psychologist, in 1974. Particularly, Anderson instructed his research participants to memorize 26 sentences. He later asked the participants to identify if certain sentences are indeed part of the original 26 sentences which they were asked to memorize.

The findings showed that it was harder for the participants to distinguish concepts with multiple associations. For instance, the series of phrases “bat and ball”, “yellow and black”, and “green apple” are easier to remember as compared to “ball and ax”, “ax and call”, and “ball and call”. It usually takes more time to recall the differences in the latter series as there are more similar details; hence, multiple associations. The resulting confusion leads to longer processing time or higher probability of committing errors ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fan+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=FanaticismTurner's Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Familial+Turner%27s+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+Sculptinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Familial+Dysautonomia+%28FD%29
Elizabeth Loftus, an American cognitive psychologist, is known as the lead researcher on false memory in 1974. Loftus testified in a trial that memories can be altered and that some eyewitnesses may not be that reliable. Some factors that may contribute to recalling something inaccurately include suggestibility and incorporation of associated details. One notable case is that of Maxine Berry who sued her therapists for making her falsely believe that she was abused as a child. Berry’s mother apparently manipulated the therapists to instill such childhood memories. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=False+MemoryFalse Dementia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depression-Related+Cognitive+DysfunctionFaith Healing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Supernatural+HealingFaith Healing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Miracle+HealingFaith Healing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Divine+HealingMass Hysteria.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Collective+Obsessional+BehaviorMass Hysteria.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mass+Psychogenic+IllnessMass Hysteria.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Collective+HysteriaEthnic Psychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethnic+Minority+PsychologyEthnic Psychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Racial+PsychologyEthnic Psychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=EthnopsychologyEthical Dilemma.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethical+ParadoxEthical Dilemma.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moral+DilemmaErotic Graphomania.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ErotographomaniaErotic Asphyxiation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=GaspersErotic Asphyxiation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AsphyxiophiliaErotic Asphyxiation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HypoxphiliaErotic Asphyxiation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Breath+Control+PlayErectile Dysfunction.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ImpotenceEquine Assisted Psychotherapy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equine+Facilitated+Mental+Health+%28EFMH%29Equine Assisted Psychotherapy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equine+Facilitated+Counseling+%28EFC%29Equine Assisted Psychotherapy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equine+Facilitated+Wellness+%28EFW%29Epstein-Barr Virus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Human+Gammaherpesvirus+4Electric Shock Method.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ElectrotherapyEdward's Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trisomy+EEdward's Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trisomy+18Ecopsychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gaia+EcologyEcopsychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transpersonal+EcologyEcopsychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PsychoecologyEcopsychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Green+TherapyEcopsychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Environmental+PsychologyBrown-Sequard Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=BSShttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cardiomegaly
The young Hellinger at the age of 10 left home to attend a Catholic monastery and he was later sent as a missionary to South Africa. The local Hitler Youth Organization was not successful in recruiting Hellinger; and he was then conscripted into the German army. In 1945, he was imprisoned in a Prisoner of War camp in Belgium but was able to escape and return to Germany. He then entered the Jesuits and took the religious name, “Suitbert.” After being ordained as a priest, he was again sent to South Africa where he lived for the next 16 years. He took up various roles such as being a parish priest, teacher, and headmaster.

However, his vows as priest began to crumble when he joined interracial group dynamics trainings conducted by the Anglican clergy. This also marked his interest in phenomenology, especially when a trainer asked, “What is more important to you, your ideals or people? Which would you sacrifice for the other?” Hellinger connected this question with how the Nazis sacrificed lives for ideals. He then returned to Germany and trained in psychoanalysis; after which, he went to the United States and was trained by Arthur Janov, an American psychotherapist and writer. He was also influenced by Eric Berne, a Canadian-born psychotherapist who developed Transactional Analysis. Hellinger published more than 90 books, delivered lectures and workshops in various countries, and, together with his wife, run the Hellinger school. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bert+Hellinger
This is genetic condition is often manifested in adulthood (from 20s to 70s) and is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid, a protein linked to the development of various diseases, in nerve cells. This abnormal build-up leads to problems in sensation, mobility, and digestion. In its most serious form, the heart is affected and is manifested as cardiomegaly and/or arrhythmia.

The specific symptoms include shortness of breath, hearing loss, enlarged tongue, weight loss, bruising, fatigue, heart failure, arthritis, malabsorption, diarrhea, liver damage, carpal tunnel syndrome, tingling, numbness, and lack of appetite. Most of the patients are with Portuguese, Japanese, or Swedish ancestry who have a mutated TTR gene (gives instructions for producing the protein transthyretin). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Familial+Portuguese+Polyneurotic+Amyloidosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gastrointestinal+Dysmotility+%28Autoimmune+Gastrointestinal+Dysmotility+%28AGID%29%29
Electra complex is theorized to be experienced at the age of three to six years old. Carl Jung coined this term in 1913 and based it on the Greek mythology of Electra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. Electra’s hostility against her mother stemmed from Clytemnestra’s affair with Aegisthus who killed Agamemnon. Electra then asked Orestes, her brother to help her kill their mother and Aegisthus.

Electra complex is framed as the counterpart of Sigmund Freud’s theorized Oedipus Complex (hyperlink). Freud’s theory only focused on boys and Jung thought that there should also be a certain concept for girls’ psychosexual stages. However, this theory is presently widely criticized. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Female+Oedipus+Complex
The symptoms of this rare congenital condition is a triad of varicose veins, port-wine stain, and soft and bony tissue hypertrophy of a limb (may lead to shrinking or gigantism of the affected extremity). Patients may also have health concerns regarding their lymph system. The symptoms may be managed but there is no cure for this syndrome which was first described by Maurice Klippel and Paul Trenaunay, French physicians, in 1900. Frederick Parkes Weber, a German-British physician, also described similar yet not identical cases in 1907 and 1918. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber+Syndrome
This rare genetic condition starts to manifest within the first weeks of life. Unfortunately, the affected patients die within 6 months.

The symptoms include difficulties in swallowing and breathing, vomiting, swollen lymph nodes, arthritis, and hoarseness. Also, there is a chronic shortening of muscles or tendons and xanthomas which is a condition of having fatty growths under the skin. Affected patients may also have problems concerning their liver, heart, and kidneys.

Farber’s disease is caused by a lack of ceramidase which is an enzyme responsible for severing fatty acids from ceramides, a family of waxy lipid molecules. Hence, such deficiency causes fat accumulation, particularly at the joints, liver, throat, central nervous system, and tissues. Since this disease is very rare, there are only around 80 reported cases. Farber’s disease is an eponym for Sydney Farber, an American pediatric pathologist and the father of modern chemotherapy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Farber%92s+Lipogranulomatosis+%28Farber+Disease%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ultrasound+Exam
Those with this congenital disorder have abnormal blood vessels, port-wine stain on their faces, glaucoma, and seizures. The other symptoms include intellectual disability, paralysis, developmental delay, and muscle weakness. This is specifically caused by the random mutation of the guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(q) (GNAQ) gene. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encephalofacial+Angiomatosis
Herzberg specified that there are four states that an organization can experience.

The most ideal state is the “high hygiene and high motivation” as it is characterized by the employees’ high motivation and low extent of grievances. A company with “high hygiene and low motivation state” has employees who have very few grievances but are not motivated. In “low hygiene and high motivation state”, the employees are highly motivated but they also have a number of complaints. Lastly, the worst state is having “low hygiene and low motivation” wherein the employees are not motivated and have many grievances. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Herzberg%27s+Two+Factory+Theory+%28Motivation+Theory%29
Jane Loevinger, an American developmental psychologist, was the first to offer the rationale that the ego goes through an evolution of specific stages.

She suggested nine stages of ego development:

* pre-social * impulsive * self-protective * conformist * self-aware * conscientious * individualistic * autonomous * integrated.

In the pre-social stage, there is still a confusion between one’s self and the caregiver; this is characterized by infants. The impulsive stage is manifested when the child asserts himself and occasionally shows emotional outbursts in response to frustrations. In the self-protective stage, children may resort to lying, manipulation, and blaming to protect their ego. In the conformist stage, the individual evaluates himself and others based on norms and stereotypes such as fashion, laws, and cultural expectations.

The self-aware is most common among adults as they can better understand the uniqueness of each person’s feelings and motivations. In the conscientious stage, long-term goals, responsibilities, and values are emphasized. The individualistic stage is characterized by a deeper self-understanding of one’s conflicting thoughts and feelings. In the autonomous stage, the individual values uniqueness and self-actualization; hence, self-fulfillment is a regular goal. Finally, the integrated stage shows comprehensive empathy, wisdom, and inner peace. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego+Development
Ego identity is having a strong sense of self which is manifested by a confident awareness of one’s enduring characteristics. For instance, a person with a healthy ego identity is knowledgeable of his strengths, weaknesses, passions, philosophy in life, and the kind of environment which he may thrive. Moreover, he is careful not to sacrifice his individual identity when conforming to others’ standards. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego+Identityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Least+Restrictive+Environment+%28LRE%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Individualized+Education+Program+%28IEP%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Admission%2C+Review%2C+And+Dismissal+Committee+%28ARDC%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Congenital+Nevus+
Unfortunately, those with this condition often survive for only a few months or years. However, a few victims have been able to live into adulthood. This disease, because it is caused by a rare recessive gene, is normally a rare occurrence in the general population of the planet. However, it is, unfortunately, fairly common in the polygamist communities of the American southwest (the largest known cluster of this condition in the world), due to the the limited gene pool that is caused by marriages between close relatives over several generations. Also see consanguineal marriage.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fumarase+Deficiencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fatal+Familial+Insomnia+%28FFI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+Counseling
This false assessment often occurs when the patient is elderly and as such presents with cognitive difficulties that are stereotypically associated with aging. Hence, the cognitive impairments can be reversed with the treatment of depression or proper medication management. Some of the key distinctions between true and false dementia are the onset and duration; the former is usually gradual and enduring while the latter has an abrupt onset and has a shorter life span. Many elderly adults see, and receive prescriptions, from multiple doctors. Some times these various prescriptions can interfere with each other and can cause, or at least conribute to, false dementia. For this reason it can be a good idea for a patient, or family member, to consult with a pharmacist about drug interactions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=False+Dementiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Faith+Healing
For instance, an elderly adult is having a conversation with his grandchild but his thoughts wandered to his memories during the war when he saw a toy gun. After seeing this gun he was not to suppress these memories and continued this story while being unaware of what his grandchild was saying and asking. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Failure-to-Inhibit+Theory
Furthermore, a study on Tasmanian native hens found out that the male birds learned to overcome their instinct to fight with each other for the sake of the survival of their chicks which are more protected by tall shrubs and ready access to fresh water. Since there is a scarcity of good territory in their environment, it is more beneficial to share a mate and better defend their shelter for the progress of their species. Regarding humans, the same system is practiced by Tibetan tribespeople who find it more beneficial for a woman to have two husbands (usually brothers) to prevent family land from being split up. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Facultative+Polyandry
For instance, a primary caregiver is secretly poisoning her child and then derives satisfaction from the sympathy of others and attention from medical practitioners. The warning signs include the child's numerous hospitalizations, pattern of recurring illness after discharge, presence of chemicals in the child’s blood, urine, or stool. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Factitious+DisorderExplicit Memory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fact+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Facilitated+Communicationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epitheliumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epiphany, epidemic hysteria, mass psychogenic illness, or collective obsessional behavior. This psychiatric condition is manifested in various forms such as laughing, dancing, fainting, and having skin rashes. Simon Wessely, a British psychiatrist, suggested that this phenomenon has five general characteristics: sudden appearance of abnormal behavior which cannot be attributed to physical illness, manifested by a group of people who would not normally engage in such deviancy, does not include deliberate provocation such as those observed in religious practices, does not include practices meant to achieve a goal such as fashion crazes and riots, and the relationship between the affected individuals must not be purely coincidental as they belong to a particular community or group. Wessely furthered that women are more prone to epidemic hysteria as they are often exposed to more stressors than men. The hypothesized causes include widespread anxiety, the ability of the brain to make the body believe that it is suffering from a particular sickness, and socio-emotional pressures.

There have been various accounts of mass hysteria throughout history. In the middle ages, a nun in Germany repeatedly bit other nuns and this biting epidemic spread to other nuns, through other convents even as far as Holland and Italy. In 1894, 60 students in Montreal suffered from seizures for two months. In 1939, a girl in Bellevue, Louisiana manifested a leg twitch which spread to her friends over several weeks. In September 2018, 106 passengers who flew from Dubai to New York were coughing, sneezing, and vomiting. Physicians concluded that only some of them merely had the common flu while the others believed that they were also sick after observing the symptoms of the other passengers. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epidemic+Hysteriahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epidemic+Catalepsyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Environmental+Stress+Theory
In information technology, entropy happens when there is an unpredictable signal in the cybernetics system. This is manifested as choppy communication, dropping calls, and too much static. In cities where there are sufficient cell towers, there is ample energy to sustain the signals, hence, the entropy is low.

In psychology, entropy refers to sufficient tension for positive change to transpire. For instance, Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, emphasized the importance of psychology entropy by saying, “there is no energy unless there is a tension of opposites”. Such energy dispersal is necessary for the "color" to happen in one’s life. One of Jung’s patients aptly stated, “I don’t know what you are going to do with me, but I hope you are going to give me something that is not gray”. Moreover, in psychotherapy, the client needs to be aware of his entropy, the inner conflicts that he is experiencing, so he can be more in charge of it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Entropy
In this phase, the primary consumers are able to acquire 10% of the solar energy which was absorbed by the producers. The energy flow goes on with the secondary consumers (such as carnivores) which prey on the primary consumers; at this level, only 1% of the solar energy is obtained. This is then continued when the tertiary consumers eat the secondary consumers (like when humans eat the chicken which ate the grasshopper which ate leaves). In this case, only 0.1% of the solar energy is obtained. The last part of the chain involves the function of decomposers such as bacteria which break down organic matter. At this point, the energy is released back into the soil or into the atmosphere. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Energy+Flowhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=LaparoscopyMRI, and CT scan. The results are also validated through laparoscopy which enables the physician to take samples for biopsy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endometriosiszygote and the placenta. If pregnancy does not occur, the unnecessary tissues come out as menstrual flow. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endometriumelimination disorder which is characterized by voluntary or involuntary inappropriate passage of feces which occurs at least once a month for three months. The individual must at least be four years old for a diagnosis to be given. The most common cause of encopresis is chronic constipation as it causes the colon to become too full which results to the liquid stool leaking around the impacted stool. Also, the intestines get swollen due to the frequent stool retention which leads to the lack of bowel movement control. Another possible cause is emotional issues or stress. The symptoms of encopresis include liquid stool on underwear, frequent constipation, lack of appetite, abdominal pain, and bladder infections. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encopresishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empty+Speechhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Employee+Assistance+Program+%28EAP%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Maturityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Deprivationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dyssemiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emory+Dyssemia+Index+%28EDI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emmert%27s+Lawhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rheumatic+FeverPolarized Thinking.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=%22Either-Or%22+ThinkingPolarized Thinking.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=%22Black+Or+White%22+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Euphorianthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethoshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethnographic+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethnic+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethnic+Cleansinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethical+Imperativehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethical+Judgmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethical+Dilemmahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethanolhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Estrushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Esophageal+Speech+%28Esophageal+Voice%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Escapismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erotic+Graphomania+%28Erotographomania%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erotic+Asphyxiationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erectile+Dysfunction+%28ED%29
This kind of therapy has been famous for the rehabilitation of Jaycee Dugard who was abducted at the age of 11 by Phillip Greg Garrido and Nancy Garrido in 1991. Dugard was kept in captivity for 18 years, was repeatedly raped, and gave birth to two daughters; she was freed in 2009 after the Garridos’ arrest. Dugard went into therapy and shared how EAP helped her face her traumatic past. Interestingly, President Obama, during his administration, allocated significant funds to utilize EAP help the rehabilitation process of veterans. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equine+Assisted+Psychotherapy+%28EAP%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epstein-Barr+Virushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ephemeralhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enzyme+Inhibitioninhibition which refers to the restriction of expression of a certain enzyme. Enzyme induction is often associated with pharmacology and molecular biology. For instance, Rifampicin is an antibiotic which stimulates liver enzymes’ production. This drug is prescribed to treat tuberculosis, leprosy, and other bacterial infections. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enzyme+Inductionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enzymeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Environmental+Psychophysicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emasculationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Polyglothttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elite+Bilingualismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electrolyte+Imbalancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electric+Shock+MethodSigmund Freud’s structure of personality which is composed of the id (pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), and superego (perfection principle). Other psychoanalytic theorists elaborated on the functions of the ego, its strengthening, and how its impairment can lead to mental illness. Ego psychology facilitates psychoanalytic treatment by effective regulation of the reality principle in relation to the environment. For instance, it’s a weekend and you really want to attend a party (id: pleasure) but you also need to review for a quiz (superego: perfection). A healthy ego may be able to balance the two opposing forces by first reviewing for 2 hours then attending the party afterwards. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Effeminacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Efficacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Edward%92s+Social+Desirability+Scalehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Education+For+All+Handicapped+Children+Act+Or+EAHCAhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Educational+Placementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Edwards+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Edemahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ecopsychology
The symptoms for severe preeclampsia include blurred vision, severe headaches, infrequent urination (usually small amounts only), abdominal pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, and bruising easily. Since preeclampsia may prevent the placenta from getting enough blood, the baby may have less nourishment which may lead to low birthweight. If untreated, this may progress to eclampsia. Those who are at risk of developing preeclampsia include history of hypertension, having relatives who had preeclampsia, carrying multiple babies, obesity, kidney concerns, and older than 40 years old or younger than 20 years old. Though there is no guaranteed way to prevent this condition, most physicians encourage pregnant women to drink much water, lessen salt intake, take time to elevate the feet, have enough rest and exercise, and avoid alcohol and caffeine. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preeclampsiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eclampsia
For instance, the etymology of psychology is from the Greek words “psyche” which means “mind or soul” and “logy” which means “science”. Psychology is more popularly defined as the “study of behavior” which is a manifestation of one’s mind. Etymologists look into how a word has been influenced by factors such as language change, symbolical meanings, and sound alterations. They use ancient texts, compare words with similar ancestor languages, and hypothesize about words’ meanings. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Etymologyamygdala, associated with emotional memories, and hippocampus, linked with memorization, are particularly essential in remembering such events. Also, novel event memories such as “first relationship”, “first job”, and “most embarrassing moment” are the ones which are most easily and vividly remembered. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Event+Memory
For instance, a researcher would monitor previous convicts for 10 years to know the probability of getting re-arrested. Through several tools such as chi-square, t-test, and other tests, the results concluded the percentage of released inmates who are most likely to go back to jail. In psychology, this analysis could be employed in estimating the likelihood of a disorder’s recurrence, and related variables. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Event+History+Analysishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eustachian+Tubehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evil+Eye
In religious practices, this is generally known as the act of praising or glorifying God as exaltation came from the Latin word “exaltare” which means “raise aloft”. Regarding the belief among The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints members, exaltation is also known as eternal life. It is held that this will happen when humankind can get reunited with God and live as families. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exaltationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exacerbationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Event+Sampling
For instance, a person with exercise addiction is working out three times a day: morning, lunch break, and at night. Her weight is already dangerously low and she already has feet and spine injuries due to her excessive strenuous activities. She does not have a social life and is experiencing anxiety when she could not workout for at least thrice a day. This condition may be related to body dysmorphic disorder and to the spectrum of obsessive/compulsive disorders. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exercise+Addiction
Regarding Transactional Analysis, a kind of therapy and psychoanalytic theory, the executive self is the individual’s state which dictates his behavior. For instance, a teacher wanted to scream and curse at a student who was trying to cheat in a quiz; however, she manifested her executive self by composing herself and firmly warning the student regarding the consequences. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Executive+Selfobsessive compulsive disorder. The treatments include antidepressant medications and cognitive-behavioral therapy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Excoriationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exogamy
In psychiatry, this term refers to a disease or a symptom which grows or emerges from the outside of the body. Individuals who have exogenous depression have gone through significant levels of stress which triggered their condition. Examples of such traumatic experiences are sexual harassment, death of a loved one, divorce or separation, and exposure to violence. Mental health experts used to differentiate depression as exogenous or endogenous (happens without trauma or stress); however, the current practice mostly refers to the specifications featured in the fifth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exogenous+Depression
For instance, a researcher using the existential phenomenology approach would interview a participant regarding his opinions, emotions, attitude, relationships, and other aspects of his subjective experience. Some of the notable existential phenomenologists include Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Samuel Todes, and Gabriel Marcel. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Existential+Phenomenologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimenter+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Explosive+Deafnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Explosive+Personality
The risk factors include history of physical abuse, multiple traumatic experiences, and other mental health concerns. Individuals with IED often face problems relating with others and are more prone to abuse substances due to their unstable moods. They may also engage in self-harm, and are at risk to have certain physical health complications such as ulcers, hypertension, and chronic pain. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Explosive+Disorder+%28Intermittent+Explosive+Disorder+%28IED%29%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=External+Auditory+Meatus+%28EAM%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eye+Banks
As compared to the less dominant eye, the preferred eye has been tested to have more neural connections to the brain. There are several ways to test eyedness, one is called the Dolman method which is also known as the hole-in-the-card test. In this method, the individual is asked to use both hands to hold a card with a small hole in the middle. With both eyes, the subject is then asked to focus on a distant object through the hole. The card is slowly drawn back to the head to determine which eye is viewing the object. This tendency is analogous to being right or left handed; around 67% of the population has right-eye dominance. Ocular dominance is important to be considered in having eye surgeries, contact lenses, and eye glasses. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eye+Dominancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eye-Hand+Coordinationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lewy+Body+Dementiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Episodic+Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epileptogenic+Lesionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+Dynamic+Disorder
For instance, a mother treats her child as an adult and shares worries which she should not share. In turn, the child feels the mother’s anxiety and the mother also further feels her child’s apprehensions. This codependent relationship should be differentiated from having a close bond since an enmeshment relationship makes the individuals unable to healthily separate their feelings from each other. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enmeshmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endocarditishomeostasis. They help regulate our appetite, digestion, immune system, mood, sleep, temperature, sensitivity to pain and pleasure, reproduction, and other mechanisms. They are produced on demand; for instance, endocannabinoids are detected causing the activation of immune cells due to an inflammation. Some studies have found out that a lack of endocannabinoids may be related with migraine, irritable bowel syndrome, and fibromyalgia. These substances are presently being tested to possibly treat chronic pain, Alzheimer’s disease, autoimmune diseases, and other conditions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endocannabinoidshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encephalomyelitis
There are two types of encephalitis: primary and secondary. Primary encephalitis occurs when a virus or bacteria directly infects the brain. Secondary encephalitis occurs when the immune system incorrectly reacts to an infection by attacking the healthy brain cells instead of only targeting the unhealthy cells. This usually manifests two or three weeks after the first infection. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encephalitishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empirical+Methodcognitive behavior therapy (CBT) . For instance, a girl has an irrational fear of cockroaches. She is then asked to close her eyes and relax on a comfortable couch; after a couple of minutes, she is asked to imagine that she is a foot away from the feared insect and that she is being courageously indifferent to it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotive+Imageryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Intelligence+Quotienthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Abuse
For instance, the etic approach is used when a researcher from America goes to Japan and observes a particular community; hence, he does not alter the culture. On the other hand, emic approach is employed when the researcher immerses himself in that society’s culture and gains a deeper access to their private rituals. The disadvantage of the etic approach is the risk of lower validity due to the subjects’ less genuine behavior as influenced by the feeling of “being observed”. As for the emic approach, there is a risk that the researcher’s objectivity may be lessened as a result of his interaction with the subjects.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emic-Etic+Distinction+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Embryonic+Stem+Cellssurrogate motherhood.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gestational+Surrogacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Embryologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electrical+Stimulation+Of+The+Brain+%28ESB%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elan+Vitalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Egotheismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego-Dystonic+%28Ego+Alien%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Efferent+Motor+Aphasia+%28Kinetic+Motor+Aphasia%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ectopic+Testis
This kind of rare condition affects 1 out of 50 pregnant women. The symptoms include intermittent sharp abdominal and/or pelvic pains and cramps, vaginal bleeding, dizziness, fainting, pain on one side of body, and gastrointestinal concerns. Ectopic pregnancy may be caused by infection, scar tissue, previous surgery, or abnormal growth in the fallopian tube. The risk factors include older than 35 years old, previous ectopic pregnancy, having undergone abdominal or pelvic surgery, previous abortions, pelvic inflammatory disease, conceiving after tubal ligation or while using an intrauterine device, having fertility treatments, and smoking.

In rare occasions the fertilized egg may implant itself in the abdomen and require surgical intervention. There are accounts in medical literature of these types of abdominal pregnancies having gone full-term with the fetus dying due to lack of surgical intervention. This type of event can result in the formation of a "lithopedian" or a "stone baby." as the body attempts to wall off the dead fetus from the rest of the body ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ectopic+Pregnancycatatonia, and asleep during the day but awake at night. Since this condition targets the brain, some patients may present with neck rigidity, psychosis, postural instability, tremors, and compulsive shouting. In the disease’s advanced stage, a coma-like state may ensue. This was first described by Constantin Freiherr von Economo, an Austrian psychiatrist and neurologist, and Jean-Rene Cruchet, a French pathologist, in 1917. The cause of Economo’s disease is still uncertain and the treatment is limited to remediating certain symptoms.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Economo%27s+Diseasehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Speaking+In+Tongueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ecstatic+Tranceautosomal dominant condition that causes the random growth of benign tumors on the nervous system.

The most common symptoms of NF-1 include small brownish-red spots in the iris (colored part of the eye) that are called Lisch nodules. Additionally, benign skin tumors called neurofibromas, and larger benign tumors form on nerves and are called plexiform neurofibromas. Other manifestations of NF-1 are scoliosis (curvature of the spine), learning disabilities, vision disorders, mental disabilities, multiple café au lait spots and epilepsy]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurofibromatosis+Type+1+%28NF-1%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elephant+Man%27s+Disease
For instance, circle A is surrounded by much bigger circles while circle B is surrounded by much smaller circles. Even if circles A and B have the same size, circle A appears smaller due to its marked contrast with the bigger circles around it. This was introduced by Hermann Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, and popularized by Edward Titchener, an English psychologist, in the English-speaking countries. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ebbinghaus+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Leo+Kanner
The symptoms may be observed as early as 4 months; unlike their peers, babies with this condition are not responsive to social stimulation. This was first described by Leo Kanner, an Austrian-American child psychiatrist. Kanner specified that his patients with this diagnosis lacked affective connection, demanded sameness, had speech difficulties, were preoccupied with manipulating objects, and had excellent rote memory or visual-spatial abilities but had difficulties in other areas.

In the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), this condition is known as “autism spectrum disorder” (ASD). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Early+Infantile+Autismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peter+Brereton+Townsend+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=David+Weyhe+Smith+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Demonologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Demonic+Possessionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dementia+Praecox+%28Premature+Dementia%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusional+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusional+Parasitosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deferred+Prosecutionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defensivenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defectologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defecation+Reflexbipolar disorder believes that he has magic powers and shows heightened creativity, and euphoria.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusional+Manianarcolepsy. GHB is illegally used as a date rape drug, recreational drug, and athletic performance enhancer. Its effects include euphoria, enhanced sensuality, amnesia, dizziness, drowsiness, blurry vision, and even death. Its street names include liquid ecstasy (liquid E), G, lollipops, liquid X, and soap. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate+%28GHB%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebritishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cardiomyopathyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eugen+Bleulerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Being-in-the-Worldhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beating+Fantasyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimenter+Effect/a<.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Galvanic+Skin+Response+%28GSR%29/a<.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electrodermal+Activity+%28EDA%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Albright%92s+Hereditary+Osteodystrophy+%28AHO%29/a<.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Datura/a<.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dichoronic+TwinsDiscovery Learning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Problem+Based+LearningDiscovery Learning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=21st+Century+LearningDemerol.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SmackDemerol.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DemmiesDemerol.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=MeperidineDemerol.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PethidineDementia Pugilistica.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chronic+Traumatic+Encephalopathy+%28CTE%29Dementia Pugilistica.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Boxer%27s+SyndromeDementia Pugilistica.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Punch+Drunk+SyndromeDementia Paralytica.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=General+Paralysis+Of+The+InsaneDementia Paralytica.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Syphilitic+MeningoencephalitisDementia Paralytica.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brain+Syphilishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PYY+%28Peptide+YY%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Death+Wishhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ApoptosisBrown Sequard Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spastic+Spinal+MonoplegiaBrown Sequard Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Partial+Spinal+Sensory+SyndromeBrown Sequard Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemisection+Of+The+Spinal+CordBrown-Sequard Syndrome">/a<.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemiparaplegic+Syndrome
This medication restores the balance of certain neurotransmitters and it was first approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 1996. Its side effects include dizziness, hair loss, diarrhea, drowsiness, blurry vision, tremor, weight and menstruation changes. Depakote comes in tablet form in pink, peach, and lavender colors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depakote
For instance, when the Spanish conquerors occupied the Philippines, they required the natives to change their names and stop practicing many of their beliefs. Also, in the US, Native Americans were forced to relocate and were “civilized” through Christian education which aimed at depriving them of their cultural identity. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deculturation
For instance, children are tasked to go to the garden and identify monocot and dicot plants; this way, they can better experience nature as compared to merely looking at textbook illustrations. The teacher also guides them to observe and write questions that come their minds as they are doing the activity. The children’s incidental observations and questions will then be addressed through an interactive discussion. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discovery+
One usual example of disconnection is “split-brain” which is caused by a lesion on the corpus callosum, the bridge between the right and left hemispheres. Individuals with split-brain syndrome cannot use both hemispheres interdependently; hence, they have difficulties concerning speech ad object recognition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disconnection+Sydnromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Designer+Children
For instance, regarding industrial deseasonalization, the initial production of a certain coffee flavor was every other month but due to the increased demand, the production was deseasonalized. Also, regarding statistical data, the seasonal variable is removed to focus on more significant information such as a general trend.

For example, seasonal data on the annual sales indicated that revenue particularly went up on January, March, and December. However, if you want to know if the rates have generally increased, the data set will be deseasonalized to have a clearer picture of the year’s sales. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deseasonalizehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deschooling
This term was first used by Richard Nisbett, Henry Zukier, and Ronald Lemley when they found out that research participants tend to focus less on diagnostic information (useful knowledge) in the presence of nondiagnostic information (not relevant knowledge). Particularly, the participants made more extreme judgments about other people without the presence of nondiagnostic information as compared to when both information were presented. This is also observed when choosing products; for instance, when making decisions about the best kind of dishwashing soap, the cleaning efficiency and price are normally considered. However, if other nonconsequential information such as package coloring is presented, the central (and most meaningful) information gets “diluted” and shoppers can be significantly influenced by the color. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dilution+Effect
For instance, a person with an intellectual disability may be sentenced to life imprisonment instead of being given the death penalty. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diminished+Capacity+%28Diminished+Responsibility%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Easterbrook%27s+Hypothesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Early-Onset+Alzheimer%27s
This was hypothesized by Herman Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, who was also known to be the first to describe the learning curve. In 1885, Ebbinghaus suggested that learned information tends to be forgotten after days or weeks; however, such information will be easily remembered when reviewed. His studies also verified that memory goes down to 40% within the first few days and that the forgetting curve is exponential.

For instance, we all study algebra in high school. Later, unless you go into a field that requires everyday use of algebra skills, the rules for manipulating numbers and procedures that you learned easily slip away. However, it generally takes only a brief review of the rules to remember algebraic skills. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ebbinghaus+Forgetting+Curvehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elder+Abusehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elderspeakhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eigenwelthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Egopathyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elective+Mutismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elective+Bilingualismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proteus+Syndrome+Or+Elephant+Man%27s+Disease
EDR is often used in research on emotional and cognitive states, in biofeedback therapy to help the patient control his anxiety, and as a component of polygraphs or lie detectors. For instance, a spike of your sweat gland activity may be recorded when you are talking about a scary experience. This is also the science used in polygraph testing]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electrodermal+Response+%28EDR%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electrocardiogram+%28ECG+Or+EKG%29
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM 5) specifies the two kinds of elimination disorders: enuresis and encopresis.

The diagnostic criteria for enuresis include the voluntary or involuntary repeated urination into the individual’s clothes or bed, the voiding of urine occurs at least twice a week for 3 consecutive months or the symptoms cause significant functional impairment, and the age is at least five years old. The causes include stress, urinary tract infection, and developmental delays. The diagnostic criteria for encopresis include the voluntary or involuntary repeated inappropriate passage of feces, the frequency is at least once a month for three months, and the age is at least 4 years old. Its most common cause is chronic constipation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elimination+Disorders
Someone who is considering to be an emancipated minor must at least be 14 to 16 years old and prove that being freed from his/her parents is the most appropriate course. The specifics vary by state but generally, the first step is to file a petition which presents reasons for emancipation such as abusive parents, being financially independent, or having been kicked out from the house. The parents are then notified and a hearing is scheduled. During the court hearing, the judge will decide if it is most suitable to give the declaration of emancipation.

The other ways to be an emancipated minor are getting married and joining the military. Emancipated minors can enter legal contracts, sue or be sued, apply for jobs, keep their earnings, and make healthcare decisions. However, they cannot quit school, buy and consume alcohol, get married without parental consent, apply for a driver’s license, and vote. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emancipated+Minorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emancipation+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Embolushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Embolic+Strokehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cherophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dura+Meter
This genetic disorder usually affects boys and manifests at the ages of three to five. The general symptom is muscle weakness which usually begins at the hips, pelvis, thighs, and shoulders; the condition later on progresses into the voluntary muscles in the limbs (with the calves enlarged) and trunk. By their teens, patients’ respiratory and heart muscles also degenerate. Recently, survival into the early 30s is getting more common with modern medical management. Eteplirsen and deflazacort are a couple of the medications being currently employed to treat DMD patients. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Duchenne+Muscular+Dystrophy+%28DMD%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Duality+Of+Language
For instance, a 1926 (Goddard) case featured a 19-year-old woman who was frequently transitioning from “Norma”, a reserved and meek personality, to “Polly”, an emotional, greedy, disobedient, and unreasonable 4-year-old who later appeared to be 15 years old. In the current fifth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM 5), this condition is classified as “Dissociative Identity Disorder” (DID) which was previously termed as “Multiple Personality Disorder". DID is characterized by at least two enduring separate personalities and having significant memory gaps. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dual+Personalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Drug-Seeking+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disinformationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discursive+Psychology+%28DP%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Directive+Play+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Directive+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Differential+Aptitude+Test+%28DAT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Differential+Ability+Scales+%28DAS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dianeticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dialectology
The types of diabetes insipidus are central, nephrogenic, gestational, and dipsogenic. Central diabetes insipidus is caused by a damage to the pituitary gland or hypothalamus which leads to a dysregulated production of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) which facilitates the amount of fluid in urine. Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is caused by a defect in kidney tubules which manage the excretion and absorption of water. Gestational diabetes insipidus occurs when the placenta produces an enzyme which terminates ADH. Dipsogenic diabetes insipidus or primary polydipsia is simply caused by drinking too much water or fluids. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diabetes+Insipidus
In Type 1 DM, the pancreas is unable to produce sufficient insulin and it typically manifests during childhood or adolescence; its exact cause is still unknown though it has been linked with family history. In Type 2 DM, the body’s cells are unable to appropriately respond to insulin and it often appears during middle age; it is usually attributed to a combination of obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and genetics. The symptoms of Type 1 DM and Type 2 DM include increased thirst and hunger, fatigue, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, slow healing wounds, frequent infections, irritability, blurred vision, and ketones (byproduct of muscle and fat breakdown which signals low insulin levels) in the urine.

In gestational DM, the pancreas of pregnant women fails to produce sufficient insulin to handle the increasing blood sugar level which is caused by the hormones produced by the placenta. This often appears after the first trimester of pregnancy and most affected women do not feel alarming symptoms. However, possible complications include depression, preeclampsia, and Caesarean section. Also, babies who are born to women with this condition have increased risk of jaundice, low blood sugar level, being overweight, and may even be stillborn. Most patients receive the diagnosis only after testing blood sugar levels and verifying the presence of ketones in the urine. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diabetes+Mellitus+%28DM%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dharma+In+Hinduism
For instance, women in Italy were reported to use the plant to enlarge their pupils; magicians from indigenous groups used it to cause harm to enemies; and certain tribes utilized it in some of their spiritual practices. It is called such due to its trumpet shaped flowers and psychoactive effects. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Devil%27s+Trumpets
For instance, in her experiment on “Little Peter”, a boy who was scared of rabbits, Jones progressively presented the rabbit while Little Peter was eating candy until such a time that the furry animal can nibble on the boy’s fingers. Joseph Wolpe, Jone’s colleague and friend, operationalized this technique with his method of “systematic desensitization”. Wolpe taught relaxation strategies such as breathing techniques which are employed as the clients go through their fear hierarchies. For instance, an individual who is scared of butterflies will first think of a butterfly then look at a picture of a butterfly until he can finally touch the insect. Whenever the client begins to feel anxious, he is asked to breathe, meditate, or utilize other relaxation techniques; he then goes to the next level in the hierarchy after regaining a calm state of mind. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Desensitizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disability+Rating+Scale+%28DRS%29
For instance, everything seemed to be going smoothly during a date, however, the dessert which was ordered was 5 minutes late; hence, the girl with dichotomous thinking concluded that it was a disastrous night. This unhealthy cognitive pattern is often linked with borderline personality disorder which is characterized by unstable moods and relationships due to a dichotomous mindset. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dichotomous+Thinkingzygotes, they are always dichorionic. However, some identical twins which come from the same zygote (monozygotic twins) may also be dichorionic; this is generally influenced by the time of the zygote splitting. Around 30% of monozygotic twins which have split a few days after fertilization result to two separate blastocysts; this makes them implant independently and become dichorial. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dichorial+Or+Dichorionic+Twinshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dialysis+Dementiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diagnostic+Adaptive+Behavior+Scale+%28DABS%29
In the first stage (mindfulness), individuals are taught how to be more present and accepting of the current situation.

Distress tolerance zeroes in on the open-mindedness and patience regarding unpleasant emotions rather than avoiding or ignoring them.

In the third stage (emotion regulation), techniques on facilitating and changing unhealthy emotions are provided.

Finally, the interpersonal effectiveness phase trains clients to communicate assertively yet respectfully. Though DBT was initially developed to help patients with borderline personality disorder, it has been found out to be effective in treating individuals with other mental issues such as depression, substance abuse disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dialectical+Behavior+Therapy+%28DBT%29
Theodore Roosevelt Patrick Jr. is known as the father of deprogramming with his infamous techniques on combating cults. Patrick was convicted due to his unlawful methods such as kidnapping and false imprisonment.

The five stages of Patrick’s deprogramming are discrediting the authority figure, presenting contradictions, the breaking point (when the subject begins listening to the deprogrammer), self-expression (critiques the cult), and identification and transference (identifies with the deprogrammer and views the cult as the enemy). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deprogramminghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depressed+Skull+Fracturehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dendrophiliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Demerol
The symptoms occur in four stages; during the first stage, patients usually complain of headache, disorientation, and dizziness. They may also present symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In the second stage, impulsiveness, forgetfulness, poor decision-making skills, and social instability are demonstrated. The third and fourth stages include vertigo, reduced facial expression, tremors, deafness, movement and sensory processing disorders, speed impediment, depression, and suicide tendencies. Treatment is merely supportive as there is no cure. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dementia+Pugilisticahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dementia+Paralytica
Examples of such features include congenital heart defects, microcephaly, eye-ball protrusion, and short stature. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysmorphology
Ballantyne also noted that most dysmature infants had above average height and weight though some opined that the weight must be below average since there is reduced subcutaneous fat. Current sources indicate that dysmaturity or “postmaturity” is a syndrome among newborns which is caused by placental problems. The distinctive features include long and thin limbs, having a “wide-eyed” look, thick and long hair, long nails, dry, loose, and meconium-stained skin, and often seem alert. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DysmaturityDelboeuf illusion, an optical illusion on size perception. Regarding psychophysics, he also experimented on brightness with Gustav Fechner in 1865. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Joseph+R%E9mi+L%E9opold+Delb%9Cuf+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deep+Pockets+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DecileNeocortex.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=IsocortexNeocortex.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neopalliumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deceptive+Advertisinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Daily+Living+Aidhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Category+Test+%28CT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catecholamine+Hypothesis
As a young man, he read Sigmund Freud’s “The Interpretation of Dreams” which inspired him to write “The Artist” which attempted to psychoanalytically explain art. He then presented his manuscript to Freud who was highly impressed that he invited Rank to be the secretary of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. They became very close colleagues for almost 20 years; Rank was the editor of the “International Journal of Psychoanalysis” from 1912 to 1924, directed the publication of psychoanalytic works from 1919 to 1924, and was regarded by Freud as “his heir”. However, Rank’s friendship with Freud turned sour when he published “The Trauma of Birth” in 1924. Since he proposed that anxiety neurosis may be caused by the traumatic experience during birth (the transition from inside the womb to the outside world), Freud viewed this as an opposition to his theory on the Oedipus complex. After his separation from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, Rank lectured and practiced psychotherapy in the United States and France. In the 1930s, he suggested that the "will" is personality’s guiding force and that it can be employed to influence instincts. Thus, in psychoanalysis, a client’s resistance is an evidence of his will which may be proactively used towards self-development. This kind of approach ran counter to Freud’s techniques. Rank finally settled in New York in 1936. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Otto+Rankhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Walter+Edward+Dandyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adjuvant+TherapyCaprylic Acid.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Octanoic+Acidhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cannabis-Induced+Psychotic+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=CannabinoidCircumscribed Amnesia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Localized+AmnesiaCallosal Apraxia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motor+Neurological+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cannabis+Psychosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cannabidiol+%28CBD+Oil%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Callosotomy
It is named after Cornelia Catharina de Lange, a Dutch physician, who first described this condition in 1933. This developmental disorder is generally caused by gene mutation and is typically characterized by thick or long eyebrows, small nose (often with an upturned nasal tip), smooth or long philtrum, and downturned mouth with a thin upper lip.

Individuals with this genetic disorder also have small stature, missing fingers or toes, congenital hernia, intellectual disability, and developmental delays. As this syndrome ranges from moderate to severe, the features may vary widely and some affected individuals have excessive body hair, long eyelashes, low-set ears, unusually small head, and cleft palate. Moreover, a number of people with CdLS present behavioral concerns like that of those with autism; some of them also report other health concerns such as cardiac-related defects, vision and hearing difficulties, and digestive tract complications. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cornelia+De+Lange+Syndrome+%28CdLS%29
An individual with this syndrome has the delusion that someone is secretly attracted to him/her. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, erotomania is listed as one of the subtypes of delusional disorder. As the cases commonly involved women, it was dubbed as “Old Maid’s Insanity”. One of the most potent characteristics of this syndrome is denial as those with this condition cannot accept that the admired person is already married or not reciprocally interested.

For instance, one of de Clerambault’s patients stood outside the Buckingham palace for many hours with the unshakeable belief that the king was communicating with her by moving the curtains. Interestingly, erotomania is frequently a cause of stalking behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=De+Clerambault%27s+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Day+Treatment
Psychologically, daymare refers to a phenomenon characterized by a panic attack, states of distress, or anxiety triggered by conscious fantasies. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Daymare
It is a kind of therapy which employs sleep-inducing drugs. Its popularity was associated with Jakob Klaesi (1883-1980), a Swiss psychiatrist, with his “sleep cures” in the 1920s. Klaesi used a premedication with morphine and scopolamine; and an administration of Somnifen (mixture of diethyl and dipropenyl-barbituric acid and diethylamine) for 6 to 7 days. There were other drug mixture variants and Somifen was often used. This technique was usually used to treat patients with schizophrenia and it was the only available medication during that time. However, this declined in popularity when it was linked with patients’ respiratory and/or cardiac complications and even death. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dauerschlafhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deaf+Hearinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Death+Genehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusion+Of+Persecution
The most common manifestation is cutting or slashing the arms with a blade or knife. Others scratch or hit themselves while some harm themselves through drug overdose, unsafe sex, starvation, and other high-risk activities.

This is often exhibited by adolescents with psychological issues such as mood and adjustment disorders, drug abuse, low self-esteem, dysfunctional families, low stress tolerance, and impulsivity. Most young people engage in deliberate self-harm when they feel stressed while some reported that they did it merely due to curiosity and peer influence. This maladaptive behavior may be properly managed through empathetic listening, offering problem-solving tips, and providing psychoeducation to the family members, especially the parents.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deliberate+Self-Harm
This optical illusion is exhibited by two identical discs being perceived differently due to relative size perception. The disc surrounded by a bigger circle (making the margins wider) seems smaller as compared to its identical counterpart which was surrounded by a smaller circle (making the margins narrower). One of the famous applications of this illusion is the advice to eat on smaller plates as it may give you the impression that you are eating a lot since your plate looks full. On the other hand, you may think that you are not eating that much when the same amount of food is placed on a bigger plate. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delboeuf+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deism
For instance, the horrors of the holocaust exhibit dehumanizing acts such as atrocious human experiments, killing children via gas chambers, using Jewish babies for target practice, and a lot more. According to Herbert Kelman, a social ethics professor, humanness is deprived when a person’s sense of identity and community are removed. For example, the holocaust victims were not identified as human beings who are worthy to exist as they were blamed for the difficulties being experienced in the society. Thus, they were discriminated against and treated as animals. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dehumanizing
For instance, a student who is worried about the upcoming exams decides not to take the test. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Debilitative+Anxiety
For instance, a child who wants a chocolate bar is asked to wait for a couple of hours so he can have two chocolate bars. The ability to defer gratification has been linked to higher education attainment as well as psychological and physical health as it is related to essential skills like self-control, will power, and growth mindset. For example, a person who has will power can resist unhealthy food and demotivating emotional states for a greater outcome which is a healthier and more beautiful body. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delay+Of+Gratificationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decerebrationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dehoaxing
For instance, dogs often growl or bite when they feel that they cannot escape a dangerous situation. Regarding humans, individuals sometimes act aggressively on impulse without the intention of harming others but merely to protect themselves. For example, in one case, a nanny, in self-defense, stabbed her employer who almost raped her. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defensive+Aggression
Groups across the globe have a number of diverse death rites which exhibit their beliefs, geography, traditions, values, and attitudes regarding death. For instance, Muslims lay their dead on their right side facing Mecca, most Native Americans bury their dead warriors in an upright position, and some cultures in the Pacific Islands prefer water burials. Generally, the rites include cleaning, veiling or enshrouding, watching over, praying for, and finally, burying the body. Psychologically, death rites are helpful in accepting the reality of death, expressing grief and faith, having emotional, social, and economic support from the community, and acknowledging the deceased’s testimony. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Death+Ritewaxy flexibility, resistance, and rigidity.

This condition may become lethal as the patient also experiences autonomic disturbances such as increased heart rate, fever, unstable blood pressure, dehydration, incontinence (or urinary retention), constipation, and weight loss. However, some experts suggest that the term “lethal” is a misnomer since early detection and treatment can significantly prevent the condition’s worst outcome. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lethal+Catatonia
Particularly, the testimony’s reasoning is assessed regarding its scientific validity and applicability to the issue. This is named after the case “Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals” in which the case was removed due to submitted evidences which were not scientifically based. The plaintiffs, Daubert and Schuller claimed that they had limb deformities because of Bendectin, an anti-nausea medication, which their mothers took when they were pregnant with them. However, the studies which were presented were not peer-reviewed or published and the FDA did not list the drug as dangerous for pregnant women; hence, the evidences were deemed inadmissible.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Daubert+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thanatos+%28Death+Instinct%29
For instance, when some birds perceive that food is becoming scarce as winter is approaching, they migrate to the south.Likewise, herbivores have deep instinctive fears of carnivorous species (even if they have never had any exposure to predators). Such systems are honed through experience overtime and the species who have superior algorithms are more likely to to not only survive but thrive as well.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Darwinian+Algorithmshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clitorectomy
This is illegal in most countries as it is a form of abuse which can cause serious physical as well as psychological harm. Egypt, Somalia, and other several countries specially in the Middle East and Africa are known to have the highest prevalence of this practice. Those who observe such painful and risky procedure hold the belief that women should not experience sexual pleasure. It is often done to girls before puberty (even during infancy). However, clitoral circumcision can lead to problems on childbirth, mental health, and intimate relationships. Hence, there is a global movement to ban such barbaric practice. Clitoral circumcision may only be medically done during rare conditions such as cancer and intersex. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clitoral+Circumcisionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carpal+Tunnel+Syndrome+%28CTS%29Raymond Cattell, a British and American psychologist (hyperlink). Attitudes, preferences for behaving in certain ways in specific situations, are interrelated within a dynamic lattice.

For instance, the dynamic lattice presents an individual’s attitude towards studying by showing that a student chooses to review for a quiz instead of going to a party since he is motivated by his parents’ efforts in sending him to school. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dynamic+Lattice
This was developed by Carol Dweck, a psychology professor, through her longitudinal research on young learners. Dweck aptly said, "If parents want to give their children a gift, the best thing they can do is to teach their children to love challenges, be intrigued by mistakes, enjoy effort, and keep on learning. That way, their children don’t have to be slaves of praise. They will have a lifelong way to build and repair their own confidence."

Results from her studies showed that children who were praised because of their innate attributes by statements such as “Very good! You’re so smart!” were more likely to shy away from challenges and were less likely improve their current states while those who were praised because of their hard work with statements such as “Great effort! I can see you excellently worked on this!” were more likely to embrace challenges and showed significant improvements. Dweck cautioned that growth mindset should not be simply equated with effort; the learner should understand his present progress, be mindful of the gaps in his skills, and then optimistically work towards achievement. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Growth+Mindset
The nine GNH domains include psychological wellbeing, material wellbeing or standard of living, good governance, health, education, community vitality, cultural diversity and resilience, balanced time use, and ecological diversity.

This political movement has inspired other countries such as the Philippines, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, Canada, and Australia. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gross+National+Happiness+%28GNH%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Martin+Elias+Pete+Seligman+
It occurs when you are completely engaged in a certain activity that you may even forget the time and other factors. Being in a state of flow results to feelings of happiness and accomplishment. For instance, an artist is so immersed in his art that he did not notice that he has already been painting for four hours. This concept was developed in 1975 by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, a Hungarian American psychologist. Flow should not be confused with “hyper-focus” which is spending “too much” time on certain activities such as being addicted to playing video games. Flow is a positive mental state characterized by healthy focus while hyper-focus is not always defined as positive. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flow+%28Flow+State%29Martin Seligman, a renowned positive psychologist. Seligman asserted that having positive emotions (optimism, happiness, satisfaction, etc.), being engaged in a certain activity or having “flow”, having healthy relationships by experiencing authentic connections, seeing the meaning of your existence, and attaining achievements or accomplishments are the building blocks of a happy life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PERMA+%28Positive+Emotions%2C+Engagement%2C+Relationships%2C+Meaning%2C+Accomplishments%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neocortexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genetic+Inheritancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Projection+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DazeFalsifiability.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DefeasabilityAffricate.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SemiplosiveAfrican-American Vernacular English.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=EbonicsConservatism.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conservative+BiasBechara Gambling Task.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Iowa+Gambling+TaskBrown-Peterson Distractor Technique.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brown-Peterson+ProcedureBrown-Peterson Distractor Technique.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brown-Peterson+TaskBright Light Therapy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HeliotherapyBashful Bladder Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychogenic+Urinary+RetentionBashful Bladder Syndrome.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ParuresisBell's Phenomena.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Palpebral+Oculogric+ReflexBinswanger's Disease.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subcortical+LeukoencephalopathyBinswanger's Disease.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Arteriosclerotic+Encephalopathy+Bestiality.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zoophiliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cattell%27s+16+PF+Trait+Theory
Moreover, some sex criminals most often use drugs which are odorless and tasteless such as lysergic acid diethylamide or LSD (also called acid, California sunshine, loony toons, Lucy, Superman, Zen, etc.), gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) (also known as liquid ecstasy, G, or soap), and flunitrazepam (the brand name is Rohypnol which is also known as roofies, forget pill, roaches, lunch money drug, etc.). Some of the signs that you have just taken in a date rape drug is beginning to feel intoxicated with only one or two drinks, dreamlike feeling, lethargy, dizziness, decreased breathing rate, blurry vision, loss of inhibition, increased sensuality, and feeling playful. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Date+Rape+DrugBallismus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=BenchmarkBioengineering.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genetic+EngineeringBeneffectance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Egocentric+AttributionBeneffectance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego-Defensive+AttributionBenign Stupor.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retarded+CatatoniaBenign Stupor.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kahlbaum+SyndromeBenign Stupor.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depressive+StuporBell's Mania.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Excited+DeliriumBallismus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HemiballismusAutophony.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=TympanophonyTranstheoretical Method (TTM).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stages+Of+Changehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinically+Relevant+Behavior+%28CRB%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Vampirism
The temperament of harm avoidance is linked with serotonin; it is described as the avoidance of and the sensitivity towards punishment.

Novelty seeking is linked with dopamine; it is the tendency to feel excitement regarding possibilities of reward or relief from punishing stimuli.

Reward dependence is linked with norepinephrine; the propensity to respond to social approval and other positive signals.

Persistence is the inclination to keep on with a task despite fatigue, frustration, and related negative sates.

As for the dimensions of character, self-directedness is the extent of being resourceful and goal-oriented; cooperativeness is the degree of relating well with other individuals; and self-transcendence is the extent of achieving a connection with a supreme Being and humanity. This was developed by Claude Robert Cloninger, an American geneticist, psychiatrist, and professor. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cloninger%92s+Psychobiological+Model+Of+Personalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cloninger%27s+Typology
For instance, he specified heritable traits which can predict the tendency to abuse alcohol. Cloninger developed Cloninger’s Alcoholism Typology which was based on his longitudinal research on adopted children and their biological as well as adoptive parents. He is also known for his 2004 book, “Feeling Good: The Science of Wellbeing”. Some of his awards include the Oscar Pfister Award, Judd Marmor Award, and Adolf Meyer Award. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Claude+Robert+Cloningerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clustre+Suicideshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carus+Typologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Raymond+Cattellhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebral+Hemorrhagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Charles+Bonnet+Syndrome+%28CBS%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chessboard+Illusion+%28Checker+Shadow+Illusion%29
Individuals who practice the art of foretelling someone’s future through interpreting the lines on someone’s palms are called chirologists, palmists, hand readers, or hand analysts.

Generally, there are three major palm lines which are given most weight by hand readers. The heart line, the long line under the fingers, represent love and attraction.

For instance, those with a chained heart line are said to be flirtatious and easily feel attracted to others. Since this practice has a number of cultural variations, interpretations, and lack of evidence, it has been considered as a pseudoscience by scientists. The headline starts under the index finger and goes across the palm. Those with a straight headline are believed to be logical and objective thinkers while those with a curved one are more emotionally and artistically inclined. Lastly, the lifeline is often joined by the headline under the index finger and flows down in an arc towards the wrist. For example, a faint lifeline indicates low energy and less adventurous preferences. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cheiromancyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chemical+Castrationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Childhood+Depressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Childhood+Psychosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Circumscribed+Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Client+Abusehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hamilton+Anxiety+Rating+Scale+%28HAM-A%29+
Burns particularly wrote about the common types of cognitive distortions which are heaven’s reward fallacy, always being right, global labeling, fallacy of change, emotional reasoning, shoulds, blaming, fallacy of fairness, control fallacies, personalization, catastrophizing, jumping to conclusions, overgeneralization, polarized thinking, and filtering. Burns was a student of Beck and the influence of his teacher can be observed from his works. He developed the Burns Depression Checklist (BDC) which for him replaced the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=David+D.+Burnshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Filtering+%28Mental+Filtering%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Polarized+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jumping+To+Conclusions
For instance, a battered wife is enduring daily violence with the belief that her sacrifices will eventually be worth it. Heaven’s reward fallacy is one of the most common types of cognitive distortions based on Aaron Beck’s cognitive theory. These different types were developed by David Burns, a student of Beck.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heaven%27s+Reward+Fallacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Control+Fallacieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fallacy+Of+Fairnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blaminghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shouldshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Reasoninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fallacy+Of+Changehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Global+Labeling American Psychological Association (APA) named Beck as one of the “five most influential psychotherapists of all time” as well as one of the “Americans in history who shaped the face of American psychiatry”. Some of his works include the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS) , Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation (BSS), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), more than 600 journal articles, and 25 books (authored and/or co-authored).

Beck believed that a person’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings are interrelated and that his core beliefs influence how he sees himself, others, and the future. It is then helpful to challenge pessimistic thoughts and replace them with healthier ones.

Specifically, Beck believed that there are three dysfunctional belief systems:

1. “I am defective or inadequate” 2. “All of my experiences result in defeats or failure”; and 3. “The future is hopeless”. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aaron+Beck
People with this unrealistic mindset cannot accept that they can commit mistakes. Hence, they will do everything in their power to show others that they are correct. This makes them have recurrent arguments and rifts regarding their relationships with others. Always being right is one of the most common types of cognitive distortions based on Aaron Beck’s cognitive theory. These different types were developed by David Burns, a student of Beck.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Always+Being+Righthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysfunctional+Belief+Systems
Da Costa called the condition “irritable heart” as the symptoms include shortness of breath, fatigue after minor exertion, sweating, palpitations, and chest pain. These symptoms were reported by several soldiers who remarkably returned to excellent health just after having some days or weeks of rest. The International Classification of Diseases classifies this syndrome under “somatoform autonomic dysfunction” which is characterized by physical complaints involving an organ or a system without organic basis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Da+Costa%27s+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dactylologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dale%27s+Law+%28Dale%27s+Principle%29
One example of a DRC is that of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which specifies that no noise exposure which leads to hearing loss is acceptable and that the criteria for hear loss should be set at 4000 Hz. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Damage+Risk+Criteria+%28DRC%29
One of the patterns that was observed indicated that the outbreaks often occurred during times of difficulties such as the Black Plague which caused millions of deaths in the 14th century. Hence, some theorize that the mania was a response to various hardships. Others identified it as a form of mass hysteria in which a group of individuals manifest strange fits due to social influence. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dancing+Mania+%28Choreomania%29
Taoism generally emphasizes the three treasures: compassion, frugality, and humility; and the values: action without intention or without exertion (“wu wei”), naturalness, simplicity, and spontaneity. The origin of this philosophy was traced to the 4th century and embodies the ideals written on the “I Ching” (“The Book of Changes”), the oldest of the Chinese classics which explains how behavior should be kept in accordance with nature.

The yin yang symbol is associated with Taoism as it exhibits the principle of natural and complementary energies such as masculine and feminine and light and dark. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Daoism
Darwinism was coined by Thomas Henry Huxley, an English biologist, in 1860 to refer to evolutionary concepts. It states that species grow and change through natural selection.

Darwin specified that evolution is caused by the interaction of three principles:

1. The first one is ‘variation’ which was identified as existing in all forms of life. 2. The second one is ‘heredity’, it is a conservative energy which is being relayed from one generation to the next; and 3. The last one is the ‘struggle for existence’ which identifies the differences between species regarding their ability to adapt to the environment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Darwinism+Or+Darwinian+TheorySigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Otto Rank. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depth+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peripheral+Schemahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tyrannophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ankyloglossia+%28aka%2C+Tongue-Tie%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rotary+Nystagmus+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Meningoencephalitishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Normality+Bias+%28Normalcy+Bias%29
It is the predisposition of an individual to believe a certain information which he has been repeatedly exposed to. Since familiar information is easier to process, people tend to accept it as being truthful as compared to unfamiliar information which is more difficult to assimilate; hence, familiarity can overpower rationality. For example, an individual often chooses to buy brand A (which has a number of advertisements on TV, over the radio, and on billboards) over brand B (which has less ads) even if he read a research which concluded that brand B is better. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusory+Truth+Effecgthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Caregiver+Burdenhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Career+Anchorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cardiodopahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carbamateshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Caprylic+Acidhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Capitationshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Canonical+Analysis+Or+A+Canonical-Correlation+Analysis+%28CCA%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Canonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Candidiasishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Can-Do+Factorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Calcium+Channel+Blockers
BAI consists of 21 multiple choice questions with a Likert scale value of 0 (not at all) to 3(severely) and raw scores ranging from 0 to 63. The scores are then classified as follows:

* minimal anxiety (0 to7) * mild anxiety (8 to 15) * moderate anxiety (16 to 25) * severe anxiety (30 to 63)

It only takes 5-10 minutes to complete the BAI and it has been found to be an accurate tool in measuring the level of anxiety of adolescents and adults aged 17 to 80.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beck+Anxiety+Inventory+%28BAI%29
Brown-Séquard Syndrome is a condition characterized by partial damage in the spinal cord, particularly an injury to only one side or just the half of the spinal cord. This partial damage to the spine results in hemiparaplegia, wherein weakness and degeneration (atrophy) of muscles or paralysis occur on the side of the affected area and hemianesthesia or the loss of sensation on the opposite side. This is usually caused by an injury to the spine, specifically in the region of the neck or back. This may also be caused by a spinal cord tumor, trauma, ischemia (obstruction of blood vessel), or infectious or inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and tuberculosis. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brown-S%E9quard+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bartholin%27s+Glandshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Banganguthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bacteremiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebral+Amblyopiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Centralist+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Centrencephalic+Epilepsyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Centrencephalichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cell-Mediated+Immunity+%28CMI%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cebocephalyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cattell-Horn-Carroll+Theory+Of+Intelligence+%28C-H-C+Theory%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cataphoria
On October 17 1829, he was found bleeding due to a forehead wound. Hauser explained that he was attacked by a hooded man who threatened to kill him if he would not leave the city. His critics asserted that he could have inflicted the wound on himself and that he did this to douse the recent conflict that he had with Daumer (his current guardian at that time) who discovered that Hauser had tendencies to fabricate stories.

On April 3, 1830, he was again found bleeding due to a pistol shot wound to his head which he surprisingly rapidly recovered from. The boy explained that he accidentally took the pistol from the wall which led to the shot. This accident was again preceded by a recent quarrel with the Biberbach family (his next guardian) due to his “vanity and spite”. In 1831, Lord Stanhope, a British nobleman took Hauser into custody and brought him to Hungary to verify if the Countess Maytheny was indeed the boy’s mother as what he once claimed.

However, Hauser could not recognize any of the buildings. Stanhope began to doubt the boy’s credibility and transferred him to the care of a schoolmaster with whom Hauser had a tense relationship with due to his lies and too many excuses. On December 14, 1833, Hauser claimed to have been stabbed in the Ansbach Court Garden and a letter was found stating the attacker’s initials, M.L.O. and that Hauser was from the Bavarian Border. The court of enquiry suspected that he stabbed himself and wrote the letter since it resembled Hauser’s grammatical and spelling errors. Hauser died of his wound three days later. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kaspar+Hauser+Experiment
For instance, only the opinions and experiences of those belonging to one side are publicized while those of the other side are censored. In advertising, enticing words such as “30% discount” or “sale” are in bigger fonts and more colorful designs while the phrase, “in selected items only” are only in plain and smaller letterings. In politics, a campaigner is highlighting his accomplishments while leaving out his past issues and weaknesses. This term is based on the magicians’ technique which is presenting a deck of cards which merely appears to have been randomly shuffled but was actually stacked in a certain order. It is also linked with “stacking the deck”, a cheating strategy in gambling, in which “false shuffling” is done. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Card+Stackinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Capsaicinhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Capgras+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Backward+Reading
For instance, a student almost failed a quiz and he is already thinking that he is a failure and that he will flunk the course. The second type is catastrophizing a future occurrence. For example, before the quiz, the student is already thinking that he is going to fail and that almost everything that he will do will amount to nothing. People who catastrophize rob themselves of opportunities, are usually hopeless, and have low self-esteem. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catastrophizinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catamitehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catarrhal+Ophthalmiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catabolismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cat+Eye+Syndrome+%28CES%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rationalismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cartesianismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catabolitehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cat%27s+Cry+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Casanova+Complexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cassette+Theory+Of+Dreamshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intuition+Pumpshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heterophenomenology
He describes himself as “autodidact”, a beneficiary of a number of informal tutorials regarding fields of interest. In 2001, Dennet was awarded with the Jean Nicod Prize, an annual event in Paris which honors leading philosophers of mind; in 2011, he was awarded with the Mind and Brain Prize, established by the University and Polytechnic of Turin to honor researchers in the field of cognitive science; and in 2012, he received the Erasmus Prize, a yearly award for an individual who has given a notable contribution to European culture, society, or social science. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Daniel+Clement+Dennet+IIIhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cartesian+Theaterhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carpenter+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Camptocormiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cartesianhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carphologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Campral
This was first performed by Dr. Dandy in 1928 on a patient with malignant brain tumor.

There are two types of hemispherectomy: anatomic and functional.

Anatomic hemispherectomy is the removal of the outer parts of the brain, which are the frontal, temporal, occipital, and temporal lobes, while the inner layers are left intact. This type has higher risks of delayed hydrocephalus and blood loss. On the other hand, the functional technique involves less risk as it is only the removal of a smaller area as well as disconnecting the brain tissues which are left in place. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemispherectomy
With its two stages of division (Meiosis I and II), sex cells (sperm or egg) are produced.

Meiosis I has five stages:

Stage 1. Interphase - during the Interphase, the DNA is replicated which results to two identical sets of chromosomes. Stage 2. Prophase I - This is follows the Interphase when the nuclear membrane dissolves and the chromosomes are released. Stage 3. Metaphase I - is the meiotic spindle fibers attach to each chromosomal pair. Stage 4. Anaphase I - the chromosomal pairs are pulled apart by the spindles. Stage 5. Telophase I and cytokinesis n- a membrane forms enclosing each chromosomal set at each pole of the cell and the single cell divides into two daughter cells.

The process continues into Meiosis II which is a replication of the previous phases and are aptly called Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II and cytokinesis. As a result, four granddaughter cells are formed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Meiosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abuse+Potentialhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cardiophobia
• Basal Cell Carcinoma - The cancer cells develop at the lowest layer of the skin, or the basal cell layer of the epidermis. Basal cancerous cells rarely spread to the other body parts since they develop slowly.

• Squamous Cell Carcinoma - The cancer cells develop from the outermost layer of the skin where the squamous cells are. Like basal cancerous cells, they grow slowly and less likely to metastasize but they are more likely to spread to the fatty tissue under the epidermis.

• Ductal Carcinoma In Situ - The cancer cells develop in the breast. They have not spread into the neighboring tissue as they are confined in the milk ducts’ linings.

• Renal Cell Carcinoma - The cancer cells develop from the kidneys’ small tubes. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carcinoma
The two main types of ischemic stroke are thrombotic and embolic. Thrombotic stroke, also known as cerebral thrombosis or cerebral infarction, occurs when the cerebral arteries are blocked due to a blood clot. This kind of ischemic stroke accounts for almost 50% of all kinds of strokes. Embolic stroke is caused by a clot or embolus which originated outside the brain. The embolus then travels until it will become lodged which restricts the blood flow to the brain. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ischemic+Strokehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cachexiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learning+By+Ideashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thorndike%92s+Law+Of+Belongingnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bidwell%27s+Ghost
BRD means that evidence is fully established and all the facts are proven. However, this does not mean that there is no doubt as to the accused individual’s guilt, but that based on the evidence presented, there's no reasonable doubt. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beyond+Reasonable+Doubt+%28BRD%29
This assessment has three alternate forms (forms C, D, and E). Each form consists of 10 designs of visual stimuli, with each design containing one or more figures. The subject being examined looks at 10 different designs one at a time, which the subject tries to commit to memory, and will be asked to reproduce each one as exactly as possible on a plain paper. Administration of one form is about five minutes. Scoring of the form is based on the degree to which the reproduced figures conform to or deviate from the actual figures. BVRT is also used to identify learning disability primarily in children and degenerative brain diseases like dementia in adults. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Benton+Visual+Retention+Test+%28BVRT%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Best+Interest+Of+The+Childhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bem+Sex-Role+Inventory+%28BSRI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bennyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Card+Sorting+Testshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carcinogenhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Caesarean+Sectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Caloric+Nystagmushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Callosal+Sulcushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=California+Achievement+Tests++%28CAT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Calcium+Regulationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Callosal+Apraxiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Caffeine+Intoxicationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Calcitoninhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Belongingness+Principle
The following are the items:

1. Inability to perform household tasks 2. Inability to cope with small sums of money 3. Inability to remember shortlist of items 4. Inability to find way about indoors 5. Inability to find way about familiar streets 6. Inability to interpret surroundings 7. Inability to recall recent events 8. Tendency to dwell in the past 9. Changes in eating habits 10. Changes in dressing habits 11. Changes in sphincter control 12. Increased rigidity 13. Increased egocentricity 14. Impairment of regard of feeling for others 15. Coarsening of affect 16. Impairment of emotional control 17. Hilarity in appropriate situations 18. Diminished emotional responsiveness 19. Sexual misdemeanor 20. Hobbies relinquished 21. Diminished Initiative 22. Purposeless hyperactivity ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=+Blessed+Dementia+Scale+%28DS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blastocysthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Birds-of-a-Feather+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bioterrorismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bioethicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bioengineeringhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Binge-Drinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beneffectancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bibliotherapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Belladona+Alkaloidshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beyondismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bigorexiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Betrayal+Trauma+Theory+%28BTT%29+
It is a discrete probability distribution used for a series of Bernoulli trials or any random experiment which yields exactly two possible outcomes. The two possible results are usually called a "success", which is represented by symbol 'p' and a "failure", which is represented by symbol 'q'.

An example of Bernoulli trial is a coin flip or coin toss. Heads or tails can be defined as either a success or failure depending on the outcome you want to keep track of. During a coin flip, heads can be considered as "failure" and tails as "success". The probability of success would be 0.5 and the probability of failure would be 1-p or 1-0.5, which is also 0.5. However, it is not necessary that each Bernoulli trial's probability of success or failure have to be 50%. Plotting in a Bernoulli distribution, the probability of success is labeled on the x-axis as n=1, and failure labeled as n=O. Because of its characteristics, Bernoulli distribution is known as the simplest probability distribution that exists. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bernoulli+Distribution
Benign stupor is commonly described as the most severe form of manic-depressive disorder having a generally favorable prognosis, as contrasted to malignant stupor which exhibit a more classical deterioration course. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Benign+Stuporhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavior+Contracthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bed-Sharing
BHS is designed to measure three major areas of hopelessness, namely: feelings about the future, loss of motivation, and loss of expectations (hopes) of individuals aged 17-80. The scale purports to figure the extent of the respondents’ pessimistic view of the future.

Since BHS moderately correlates with Beck Depression Inventory, BHS may be used to determine suicidal risk among depressed people who have made suicidal attempts. In addition, this survey may be administered by paraprofessionals; however, it must be defined by professionals who are clinically trained and can employ psychotherapeutic measures. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beck+Hopelessness+Survey+Or+Beck+Hopelessness+Scale+%28BHS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bechara%92s+Gambling+Task+
There are three kinds of breech presentations. The most common is called the frank breech, also termed as extended breech; it is when the baby is born with the bottom first with the knees straight and the feet near the head. Most doctors prefer to deliver babies in this position via caesarian section since vaginal delivery poses several risks.

A complete breech, also termed as flexed breech, is when the bottom goes first with legs bent at the hips and knees. This position makes the baby appear to be sitting crossed-legged.

The third type is the footling breech which happens when the feet (both or one) go first. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Breech+Birthhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neonatal+Behavioral+Assessment+Scale+%28NBAS%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brown-Peterson+Distractor+Techniquehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavior+Dysfunction+Classificationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavior+Criterionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Belle+Indifference
Forward Chaining is a behavior chaining procedure that begins with teaching a sequence of behavior in a chronological order (A-Z) to complete a task. Each step in performing the task must be mastered before the next step is added. Reinforcement is provided after completing each step. Once the child can perform one element satisfactorily, the second element should be added and both first and second element should be done together and not separately (A; A-B; A-B-C; A-B-C-D; A-B-C-D-E), then reinforce the effort until the whole series of related behaviors are mastered.

Backward Chaining is a behavior chaining procedure often used in developing complex sequences of behavior. Instead of doing in a chronological order, it begins with teaching a series of behavior in reverse and is practiced cumulatively. Thus, the procedure should start with the last element in the chain, then proceeds to the first element. In Backward Chaining, all behaviors are initially completed by the trainer, except for the final behavior, which is done by the student. After performing the final behavior in the sequence, reinforcement is given. Next is performing the second to the last step (D; D-E;)and the sequence proceeds backwards through the chain until the whole task is performed (D; D-E; C-D-E; B-C-D-E; A-B-C-D-E). Adult assistance should be provided throughout the process and the student should complete the last step alone. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavior+Chaininghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Briquet%92s+Syndromeseasonal affective disorder (SAD). Specifically, bright light therapy can help people with circadian rhythm sleep disorders by “re-setting” their internal clock. With the use of a special light box, which mimics sunlight, the body’s hormones responsible for waking are stimulated; eventually, the body will readjust to the desired sleep-wake pattern. Regarding depression, the bright light is believed to stimulate the production of hormones that are responsible for having a better mood. Moreover, light therapy is also being used to treat certain skin conditions (psoriasis, acne, skin cancer, etc.), retinal conditions, neonatal jaundice, and non-seasonal related depression. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bright+Light+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brief+Psychiatric+Rating+Scale+%28BPRS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bronchodilatorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brugsch%92s+Indexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=The+Bruce+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brujeriahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bupropionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Toxicityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Teratologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Plasticityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Batterer%27s+Excuses
This condition is characterized by having difficulties in urinating in public restrooms or in the presence of others. People with bashful bladder syndrome are usually afraid that others may hear and smell their urine. Hence, they need complete privacy when using the toilet that they often cannot empty their bladder when there are guests at home. Understandably, they often restrict their liquid intake, avoid traveling, and feel very anxious in social functions. Since paruresis is a psychological condition, some of the most employed treatments are relaxation techniques, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and exposure therapy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bashful+Bladder+Syndrome
Thus, biometrics literally means “to measure life”. It is a measure of biological characteristics related to human features. This is being recorded and used as a technological method to verify one’s identity. There are two types of biometrics: physiological identifiers and behavioral identifiers.

Physiological identifiers are those characteristics that relate to the physiological or physical nature of the one being authenticated. Physiological identifiers include fingerprints, facial, iris and vein recognition, retina scanning, voice recognition, and DNA matching.

Behavioral identifiers are those unique human actions and behaviors which include recognition of typing patterns, walking gait, signature, and other gestures. There are also two modes of getting or recording biometrics: authentication and identification. Biometrics authentication is a technological procedure of comparing the person’s identifiers to his/her biometric “template” in order to verify the similarities. In this process, the question: “Is this indeed person A?” is answered.

For instance, this is employed in companies to gain access or entrance to certain buildings or rooms. It is also being used in identifying under surveillance individuals. On the other hand, biometric identification compares data with a database to specify the person’s identity. Thus, the question: “Who is this person?” is answered. For instance, an unknown fingerprint is run in the database and the individual’s identity will then be revealed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biometricshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bipedal+Locomotionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Binswanger%92s+Disease+%28BD%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Binet-Simon+Scale+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bestialityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bell%27s+Phenomenahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bell%27s+Maniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=G%2FBBB+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=+Bayley+Scales+Of+Infant+And+Toddler+Development+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Barron-Welsh+Art+Scale+%28BWAS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bargaining+Stagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baquethttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bardet-Biedl+Syndrome+%28BBS%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Barany+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ballismushallucinogens such as Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) and cannabis. This drug-induced reaction ranges from feelings of anxiety and isolation to manifestations of extreme temporary psychosis characterized by loss of identity, paranoia, and emotional states of terror. In worst cases, some people who had a bad trip were hospitalized or imprisoned for being dangerously aggressive. One tragically unfortunate case is that of a government experiment; where Dr. Olson, a biochemist, committed suicide days after ingesting LSD. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bad+Triphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bad+Faith
Specifically, this pertains to a type of stepwise regression which is a statistical method of building a regression model (an analysis to evaluate relationship between variables) from a group of predictor variables (sometimes called independent variables). For instance, a researcher has a set of demographic data from a survey completed by 1000 college freshmen. The predictor or independent variables are age, sex, height, religion, major course, minor course, ethnicity, and blood type. The researcher would then like to use the data in scouting for female basketball players. Through backward elimination, the unimportant variables such as religion, ethnicity, and blood type are removed one by one. As a result, the most significant predictors, which are sex (females), height (at least 5’8” tall), and course (majoring or minoring in physical education), for forming the team are left. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Backward+Eliminationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavior+Samplinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beck+Scale+For+Suicidal+Ideation+%28BSSI%29Post-Traumatic Stress Disorderor Shell Shock. This military term pertains to symptoms such as stupor, difficulty making decisions, and being numb due to the traumatic experiences during the war. Other symptoms such as aggressive behavior, irritability, depression, flashbacks, and nightmares manifest after certain days or months. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Battle+Fatigue
BWS encompasses the psychological condition of a victim who suffers from the abuse of an intimate partner. This syndrome encompasses an array of symptoms such as cognitive distortions (evidenced by the belief that the abuse was well-deserved), experiencing emotional trauma, having a debilitated self-concept, and going through severe depression.

Specifically, sufferers from BWS go through four stages. In “denial”, the abuse is perceived as normal or something that will not be repeated. The second stage, “guilt”, is characterized by the false belief that the victim is responsible for the abuse. Thirdly, in the “enlightenment” phase, a realization that the abuse is not at all deserved occurs. Finally, during the “responsibility” stage, the woman will try to leave the abusive relationship and will hold the abuser accountable. Though BWS is not recognized as a legal defense, the evidence of domestic violence and its psychological impact have been employed to assert self-preservation among women who have resorted to extreme measures against their intimate partners. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Battered+Woman+Syndrome+%28BWS%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baseline+Measurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Balance+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=BariatricsZeigarnik effect since the former focuses on the likelihood of resuming an interrupted task while the latter emphasizes remembering uncompleted tasks as compared to completed ones. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ovsiankina+Effectphenotypes are produced by a genotype even though the environment may differ. In developmental psychology, canalization was introduced by John Bowlby in regards to attachment styles. He proposed that attachments are heavily canonized - this means that the inborn systems and mechanisms that allow a child to develop an attachment to a caregiver are there even if children are exposed to differing environments and situations. The specific way an attachment is formed depends on the environment or the situation but the ability to do so at a basic level is canalization. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Canalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Battered+Child+Syndrome+%28BCS%29acetylcholine production such as the diagonal band of Broca, nucleus accumbens, nucleaus basalis, medial septal nucleus, and substantia innominata. This area is important in regulating memory, sleep, and wakefulness. Damage to the basal forebrain has been associated with memory loss, impaired attention, and other cognitive deficits. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basal+Forebrainhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basal+Cellhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biological+Clockhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuroadaptationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preconsciousness
For example, a student is in jail for shoplifting. He and his friends got so excited last night that they thought of committing a petty crime just for fun. Even if he didn’t initially want to do it, he got carried away by his peers’ influence and eventually did something that was very unlikely of his character. Deindividuation also pertains to the loss of individual identity when in a group. For instance, a person who does not normally appreciate slapstick humor is laughing when he is a part of the audience of a show involving clowns hitting each other. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deindividualization
For instance, in hypothesis testing the null hypothesis is proposed by the researcher as the opposite of what their hypothesis is. The null hypothesis is either rejected (which means the hypothesis is supported) or is not rejected. The null hypothesis is essentially a statement about falsifiability. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Falsifiabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autoshapinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eugene+Aserinskyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anisogamyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypermnesia
The experiment conducted by Souchet and Girandola on Double-Foot-in-The-Door technique proved that those who complied with two preparatory tasks were more likely to accomplish the target task as compared to those who were only given one preparatory task. This implies that most people would like to establish consistency regarding their behavior by maintaining their initial response. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Double+Foot-in-the-Door+Techniquehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mood+Freezinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synchronicityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peripartumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eudaimoniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=FOMO+%28aka%2C+Fear+Of+Missing+Out%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ahistoric+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ahypniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=After-Nystagmushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=African-American+Vernacular+English+%28AAVE%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affricatehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Afferenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Rigidity+%28Emotional+Rigidity%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Ambivalencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aesthiometryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Barrier-Free+Environmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Barr+Bodyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Barognosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Barber+Pole+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Balint%27s+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Backward+Associationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bacterial+Endocarditis+%28BE%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bacteriumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baby+Blueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bender+Visual-Motor+Gestalt+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bell-Magendie+Lawhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptive+Intelligence
For instance, someone starts thinking that they want to quit smoking. It is normal in the precontemplation phase to think about how much smoking costs, how bad the person, and his house smell, and how inconvenient smoking is in the modern world. These thoughts may then lead a person to the contemplation phase where ways to quit smoking are examined. This process may continue until the person successfully quits smoking.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transtheoretical+Method+%28TTM%29
Also see Duty to Warn. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tarasoff+Rule
Also see Attachment Theory and Anxious Avoidant Insecure Attachment.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoidant+Attachmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adipsiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adiencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adjunctive+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Concretizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Attention
Ann Wolbert Burgess and Lynda Lytle Holmstrom specified three stages of RTS: acute, outer adjustment, and renormalization.

Though the amount of time varies, the acute stage typically covers the initial days or weeks after the attack. The victims’ responses may be appear as agitated and emotional, controlled and without much emotion, or in disoriented and poor recall of the crime as they are in shock. The next phase, outward adjustment, covers the months or years after the assault. During this stage, the rape survivors cope through various defense mechanisms while trying to resume their daily lives. In the final stage, renormalization, the survivors come to terms with their maladaptive coping strategies and recover from the guilt and shame which previously haunted them. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rape+Trauma+Syndrome+%28RTS%29+Money Illusion.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Price+IllusionBiofeedback.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=NeurofeedbackNeedle Phobia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=TrypanophobiaMajor Depressive Episode and Situational Depression.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+DepressionAugmentation Strategy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adjunctive+Therapyacute confusional state".]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+DeliriumCorticosteroids.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenocorticoid+Survivorship Bias.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Survival+BiasAdaptation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptation+Timehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Semantic+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dual-Coding+Theory
For example, fake news may become more convincing when it is spread through various social media platforms. Illusory truth effect may also explain the convincing power of commercials and election campaigns. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusory+Truth+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fundamental+Attributionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ageusiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nystagmushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adultomorphismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=CorticalizationWord Salad.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schizophasiasuicidality or suicidal ideation in an individual. A clinician may use a suicide risk assessment in order to determine the risk of a patient committing suicide in order to determine if they should be placed in psychiatric care or under observation.

There are various suicide risk assessments available for clinicians. The Scale for Suicide Ideation (SSI, currently the MSSI or Modified Scale for Suicide Ideation), Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire (SBQ), Suicidal Affect Behavior Cognition Scale (SABCS), and the Suicidal Intent Scale (SIS) are all examples of suicide risk assessments. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Suicide+Risk+Assessmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Quantitative+EEG+%28qEEG%29Lev Vygotsky, different areas (other people, environments, and influences) interact with a person and they affect development over their lifespan. The most inner circle of the bioecological model is the microsystem which is a person's closest relationships: their family members, peers, and teachers.

The next level is the mesosystem which is an interaction between different microsystems. An example of a mesosystem would be a parent's involvement with their child's school - these two microsystems (parents and the school) are interacting with one another to form a mesosystem. The exosystem are things that don't directly affect an individual but influence them indirectly: like the methods of their school system or their parent's workplace. The macrosystem is made up of the cultural and societal factors that influence development - things like cultural norms, religious influences, and laws. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bioecological+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Euthanasia
For instance, being cautious as a trait may have been preserved and honed over generations since it has been instrumental in making less risky decisions and promoting survival through very watchful actions. Hence, those who were initially less cautious learned to be more apprehensive in response to a dangerous environment. Such learned behavior has then been assimilated into the genetic repertoire. This term is attributed to James Mark Baldwin, an American Psychologist, who explained the effect in his paper, “A New Factor in Evolution”. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baldwin+Effect
For example, it could be that one background variable of a respondent (i.e., his religion) as it influences his food preference. However, it is unlikely that his food preference will be the variable that would dictate his religion. Hence, background variables are generally assumed to have no substantial relevance to the subject matter. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Background+Variablehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Babkin+Reflexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baby+Brain
For instance, the ear canal could have been blocked by compacted ear wax which causes the sound vibrations to bounce back toward the ear drum. People who are suffering from anorexia nervosa may also experience autophony since rapid weight loss may reduce the size of the Ostman fat pad which is responsible for closing and protecting the Eustachian tube in the middle ear, thus diminishing the pad’s function.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autophony
For instance, working out may initially damage some muscle tissues but better and stronger muscle tissue will replace them afterwards. Also, intermittent fasting has been found out to boost autophagy as well as stimulate the growth hormone.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autophagy
For instance, a heterosexual who has a partner can still experience arousal or masturbation just by looking at their naked self in front of a mirror fantasizing that he is having sex with his partner. On the other hand, autosexuality as a sexual orientation refers to being attracted to oneself over a partner due to a troubled sexual response. Autosexuals practice these forms of stimulation because they are sexually aroused by their own bodies and not by external sources such as pornography or other people.

This might sound vain but autosexuality is totally different from narcissism. One thing that makes the two different is on how autosexuals and narcissists carry themselves in a crowd. While narcissists will want to impress other people by the way they look or by their manner of dressing, autosexuals do not care about others' compliments because they are attracted to and satisfied with their own bodies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autosexuality
Itard taught him how to communicate, specifically how to spell “lait” (milk) and “Oh, Dieu” (Oh God). A recent commentary by professor Uta Frith, a German developmental Psychologist, proposes that Victor exhibited signs of autism. Also, Dr. Serge Aroles, a French surgeon, believes that “Victor of Aveyron” is only one of the fake cases of feral children as it is impossible for a young child to survive in the wild for that long. Aroles furthered that Victor could have been a victim of physical abuse as evidenced by his scars. The boy could have had intellectual disability with parents who raised him like an animal.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aveyron+Boyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Axotomyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ayuvera
Aaron Beck, an American psychiatrist and the father of cognitive therapy, laid the foundation on the study of the different schemas which lead to unrealistic perceptions of reality. Beck proposed the theory in 1976 and David Burns developed it with the different types of cognitive distortions such as filtering, , overgeneralization, jumping to conclusions, and catastrophizing.

For instance, a person suffering from depression magnifies negative information in his daily experiences which makes him have a global pessimistic viewpoint. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Distortionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuroleptic+Malignant+Syndrome+%28NMS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Action+Disorganization+Syndrome+%28ADS%29
For instance, when you are driving a car and see a red light you put on your brakes. In this case, the red light is a discriminative stimulus that triggers the braking behavior. In this case stepping on the brake is a learned behavior as a response to the discriminative stimulus of the red light.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulus+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Correctional+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conservatism
Active coping is either by making needed changes in the environment when possible (see problem-focused coping), or adapting one’s inner or behavioral responses to the situation (see emotion-focused coping).

For example, a person is married and raising children. This can be a highly stressful phase of life. In order to manage their stress, one might go to counseling, enroll in yoga classes, meditate, take up a hobby, or anything that helps to decrease their level of stress.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Copinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adolescent+Gynecomastiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenarchehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adjudicationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Augmentation+StrategyEndocrine System.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exocrine+Glandshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adipocytes
Epinephrine is a neurotransmitter that creates abrupt bursts of energy and is part of the "fight or flight" response while norepinephrine facilitates responses to stressful situations. These neurotransmitters are key players in the Adrenergic System.

There are two kinds of adrenoreceptors:

1. Alpha receptors - they stimulate the excitatory responses of smooth muscle cells to the hormones secreted by the adrenal glands called catecholamines. 2. Beta receptors - unlike the alpha receptors, they decrease excitatory responses.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenoreceptorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+Maniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zeigarnik+Effect
For instance, a person is exposed to heat and that heat is periodically increased. But as a person adjusts to the heat, he can feel the changes but generally perceive the changes as less than they actually are. Measuring the difference between the actual heat, and the subject's perception of that heat, can be quantified through the use of a mathematical formula.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Weber-Fechner+Lawhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+Otitis+Mediahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Situational+Depressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zero+Risk+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trait+Ascription+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autocentrichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Allocentrichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Time-Saving+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Travis+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Telescoping+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Suffix+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Money+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stereotypical+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Worse-than-Average+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ABC+Paradigmhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multimodalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenalectomyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Problem-Focused+Copinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positivity+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=The+Von+Restorff+Effect
Each of these is a stage involved in the learning of information which is used to meet the challenges that occur in the different stages of life.

K. Warner Schaie's work focused on the stages of psychological development from young adulthood to old age. He is best know for his Seattle Longitudinal Study, a 'life span' approach to aging and cognition, which studied subjects from birth throughout the life course. His work is still utilized in gerontology (hyperlink) studies and has influenced some fields to raise the retirement age from 65 to 70.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schaie%27s+Stages+Of+Life+Span+Of+Developmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Regressive+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Axiomhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Actuarial+PredictionPseudobulbar Affect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Incontinencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Picture+Superiority+Effect
An example, when Shakespeare (in Romeo and Juliet) was describing the morning as grey eyed and smiling at the night. He was using personification, attributing human characteristics to something non-human, in this case the concept of 'morning.'

This differs from anthropomorphism in that personification is typically used to create an image while anthropomorphizing attempts to make an object or animal appear to behave like a human being. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PersonificationWechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The WMS is used to determine memory function and can diagnose memory abnormalities as an effect of dementia or neurological disorders.

Different types of memory are assessed using the WMS, including visual, visual working, auditory, immediate and delayed memory. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wechsler+Memory+Scale+%28WMS%29Observer Expectancy Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Observer+Effect
An example of this type of self-deception would be "all or nothing" thinking. The belief that any small failure is the same as total failure, like getting a B (rather than an A) on a test. Another thinking error is the belief that any failure sets the tone for all future life events, such as failing the bar exam on your first try and giving up entirely, rather than just preparing to take it again.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thinking+Errors
One use of cognitive reappraisal is within the process of (insert hyperlink) Rational Emotive Therapy (REBT). REBT involves taking a step back (metaphorically) and viewing an "Activating Event" in a more emotionally detached manner. The mental and behavioral responses are linked to it as a type of chain, followed by the ultimate outcome. In closely examining one's mental responses (which typically happen reflexively), the resulting emotion, behavior, and the outcome of that behavior as compared to the goal (emotional or situational goal) can be assessed. When the outcome is not the desired outcome, identifying alternate ways of thinking and behaving are identified, and productive changes can be made.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Reappraisal
An example would be if you had a child with brown hair coming from one parent with brown hair and the other with auburn hair, the brown hair is autosomal dominant. Some diseases are autosomal dominant, requiring only one parent to pass it for the disease to be expressed in the child. In these cases, the disease will be passed down each generation and sex of the child does not matter.

An example of autosomal dominant would be if you had one parent with brown hair and the other with auburn hair have a child with brown hair. The brown hair is considered autosomal dominant. Some diseases are autosomal dominant, requiring only one parent to pass it for the disease to be expressed in the child. In these cases, the disease will be passed down from generation to generation and sex of the child does not matter.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autosomal+Dominantandrogen production by the adrenal cortex during fetal development. This condition often manifests as enlarged female genitalia resembling male genitalia in females and premature puberty in males. Gene mutations cause a reduction in cortisol production which causes an increase of production of the hormone adrenocorticotropin, also called adrenocorticotropic hormones. Although this boost in adrenocorticotropin brings cortisol to near normal levels it also causes there to be a rise in androgen as well which causes the adverse effects of this disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenogenital+Syndromemyelin sheath that insulates nerve cells and the adrenal glands deteriorate because a certain type of fatty acid can't be broken down properly. This buildup is irreversible and the condition is gradual and deadly. If caught early in childhood, progression may be slowed with treatments such as using stem cells from bone marrow transplants. In many cases, treatment is focused on symptom relief such as reducing muscle stiffness and seizures.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenoleukodystrophy+%28ALD%29acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (ACHEI, also called cholinesterase inhibitor) is a drug that prevents the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) from "turning off" the activation of muscles triggered by acetylcholine (ACh).

When acetylcholine activates a muscle, acetylcholinesterase comes into play to "deactivate" it so the muscle can once again relax. It does this by halting the signal traveling between a nerve cell and muscle cell. Substances that inhibit that action include some snake venoms, nerve agents or neurotoxins, such as sarin and some pesticides.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acetylcholinesterase+Inhibitor+%28ACHEI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Verbatim+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusory+Of+Truth+Effect
For instance, in astronomy a huge swath of space might be searched with the hope of a single comet being found. Because such a wide swath of space was searched, comets will most likely be spotted. But if the researchers had chosen a particular area in which to search the likelihood of a comet being found would be smaller. So because the area searched was so large it seems as if comets are more common than they actually are. This skews the perceived occurrence of comets -- it makes them seem more common than they actually are due to the huge space searched. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Look+Elsewhere+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subjective+Validation
For instance, think of cleaning a dirty house and each room has to be cleaned separately for the task to be complete. Would it be fair for someone else to come in and look at one unfinished room and judging the whole project by that one room? By judging the entire unfinished cleaning job by only viewing one cleaned room would be an example of the subaddivity effect. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subaddivity+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Overperception%2F+Underperception+Biasnegativity bias. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negativity+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rhyme+As+Reason+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Teratophiliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Axon+Reflexexocrine glands throughout the body. Hallmark symptoms are dry eyes and mouth, but other symptoms include impaired function of the kidneys, liver, bladder, digestive system - essentially any body organ or system that requires lubricating fluid for proper function. Additional symptoms include fatigue and joint pain. Sjogren's Syndrome is often referred to as a cousin to Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE, or "Lupus").]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sjogren%27s+SyndromeObsessive-Compulsive Disorder, dermatillomania is the chronic, unrelenting urge to pick at a spot on one's skin. This often results in skin lesions despite ongoing attempts to stop the behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dermatillomaniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autosomehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autosoma+Recessivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personal+Validation+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Azathioprinecerebellum resulting from damage. This can be from a bacterial or viral infection, toxic substance exposure, blunt force injury, or vitamin deficiencies. Symptoms include stumbling, fine motor difficulties, dizziness, and impaired coordination of the torso or limbs Treatment involves addressing the cause of the damage and using appropriate treatment (antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, vitamin supplements, etc.).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+Cerebellar+AtaxiaAcetylcholinesterase inhibitor. A drug that prevents acetylcholinesterase from "turning off" the activation of muscle triggered by Acetylcholine. Acetylcholine activates a muscle, acetylcholinesterase comes into play to "deactivate" it so the muscle can once again relax. Substances that inhibit that action include some snake venoms, nerve agents, and some pesticides.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ACHEIPiaget, until age 5 or 6 children are not able to fully distinguish between reality and appearance. For example, the ability to understand that just because something looks like something else, it isn't what it seems. If a child sees someone wearing a "Wonder Woman" mask, knowing the person wearing the mask is in reality NOT Wonder Woman indicates mastery of that skill.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Appearance-Reality+Distinctionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auscultationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Processinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autochthonous
This cognitive bias is widely used to justify abuses and prejudices throughout time and place. A glaring example of this was the issue of slavery during the American Civil War. At that time slavery was such an integral part of southern economic system that thousands of soldiers, even those who didn't own slaves, gave their lives to defend a system that completely endorsed slavery and justified it with the belief that black people weren't smart enough to take care of themselves.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=System+Justification
For instance, this can lead to some false conclusions. For example, if several football players in a high school are offered football scholarship one may automatically come to the conclusion that the high school has an exceptional football program. The school may have an excellent program, or if the survivorship bias has occurred it may just only have had a few exceptional players.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Survivorship+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stereotypinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Status+Quo+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Source+Confusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Comparisonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sociabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shared+Informationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Restraint+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Regression+Fallacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reactive+Devaluationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Post-Event+Informationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Naive+Cynicismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Minimizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Minimalization
Exploding Head Syndrome (EHS) is a type of auditory hallucination that occurs in very light sleep (usually when waking or falling asleep) that sounds (internally) like a gunshot or like a person's head has exploded. This causes no actual damage or pain but can be a very surprising or frightful way to wake up. Sometimes body twitches or visual disruptions can occur with the noise. The actual cause in unknown and exploding head syndrome does not affect everyone. Some theorized causes are temporal lobe disturbances, shifts within the middle ear, or effects of stress and anxiety. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exploding+Head+Syndrome+%28EHS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autemesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auguryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pessimismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accidental+Groupinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Dysregulationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aculaliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acroparesthesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acmesthesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accidental+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Teratomahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Surrogationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Observer-Expectancy+Effect
For instance, it is a holiday and you are feeling happy and relaxed. That mood by itself can evoke other memories of holidays, fun times, family get-togethers, etc... Anything that shares the current mood.

Likewise, something bad happens in your life. This brings up similar bad memories of negative events and can plunge a person into a spiral of despair. Although the actual process behind this is not well understood, it is very common.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mood+Congruent+Memory+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=NormalcyAviophobia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flight+PhobiaAviophobia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flying+PhobiaApotemnophilia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amputee+Identity+DisorderApotemnophilia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Body+Integrity+Dysphoria+%28BID%29Apotemnophilia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=XenomeliaAcoustic Neuroma.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vestibular+Schwannoma
Axial can also refer to a period of history coined the Axial Age, sometimes called the Axis Age. This occurred broadly from 800-200 BCE and was characterized by a development of complex and philosophical thinking, religious systems, and intellectuality that emerged in various parts of the world. These new intellectual systems developed concurrently often without interaction with each other - this suggests an evolution in thinking in a broad sense instead of just the spread of information.

Axial can also refer to the method in which the fourth edition of the uses to classify different psychological and psychiatric disorders. This was called the multiaxial approach as different disorders are split into different axes. The DSM-V used the following five different dimensions to categorize disorders: Axis I (clinical disorders like depression, anxiety disorders, and bipolar disorder), Axis II (personality disorders and developmental disorders), Axis III (medical conditions like brain injury and disease), Axis IV (psychosocial and environmental conditions), Axis V ( 'Global assessment of functioning' which is a scale that rates the social, work, and mental functioning of individuals). When the DSM-5 was developed the multiaxial system was eliminated. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Axial
For example, the woman was said to be an avatar of success due to her multiple profitable businesses. Probably the most common modern usage of the word avatar is in technological parlance. An avatar is typically a digital representation of an individual in some manner. Examples of this include images or characters used in a social media account, internet forums, or video games. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avatarmaladaptive behaviors. A person having a delusion who cuts off their own finger would be autotomy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autotomypsychoactive drug that is found in northern South America. It is made from the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and other ingredients. The vine of Banisteriopsis caapi contains monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) (hyperlink?) which are alkaloids that are best known for their usage as antidepressants.

Ayahuasca cannot be made from just Banisteriopsis caapi alone - it is combined with other plants that produce dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Plants that contain DMT that are used with Banisteriopsis caapi to make ayahuasca include Psychotria viridis (known as chacruna) or Diplopterys cabrerana (known as chaliponga).

Ayahuasca has traditionally been used for religious and shamanic purposes by indigenous peoples in the Amazon and Peru. Ayahuasca causes individuals to have hallucinations which can be profound and wonderful or frightening depending on the circumstances. Advocates for ayahuasca usage outside of religious ceremonies claim it can have healing and anti-depressant effects if used in a responsible manner. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ayahuascahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autoscopophiliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autopsychosis
This is the result of neurological disorder, e.g. traumatic brain injury, stroke or many others, or brain injuries, but should not be mistaken for the emotional liability that is seen in some personality disorders such as Borderline Personality Disorder. Treatment with antidepressants is sometimes effective in the treatment of PBA.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pseudobulbar+Affect+%28PBA%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditory+Labyrinth+%28Cochlear+Labyrinth%29
This condition is a type of agnosia that occurs as a result of brain damage, often time a parietal lobe lesion or cerebrovascular damage. Sufferers of this condition are also unable to distinguish their left from their right. Although the full spectrum of underlying causes is let to be fully understood it is believed that the brain damage disrupts the mental schematic representation of the body which causes difficulty in identification, location, and orientation of body parts. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autotopagnosia
Believed to be related to the placebo effect, the Coué method of autosuggestion uses repetition of positive thoughts and cognitions in order to 'trick' the mind into accepting them as reality. Individuals were trained to use willpower and repetition to guide their cognitions, feelings, and behaviors to a positive way of thinking. By thinking positively, by regularly using these 'autosuggestions,' individuals were believed to overcome mental hangups and even some serious physical conditions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autosuggestionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aerophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apotemnophiliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automatonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autonomyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autoscopyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autostereogramhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aviophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Awfulizehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Oligospermiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Azoospermiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuriteshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Axoplasmhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Addictive+Personalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Addictive+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptive+Skillshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ad+Litem
This disorder is related to PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) but ha much more limited diagnostic time frame. When a person experiences a severe shock such as a car accident the individual may develop dissociative symptoms and may experience a decrease in emotional responsiveness and often find it difficult or impossible to experience pleasure in previously enjoyable activities. They may frequently also feel guilty about pursuing their usual life tasks.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+Stress+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcoholic+Cardiomyopathyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acupunctureacupuncture in that it utilizes pressure on specific points along the "meridian" line of the body as unblocking energy channels to promote the flow of "Qi" as a means of controlling pain. Considered a pseudoscience by mainstream western medicine and science it has a following in the west as a non-pharmaceutical means of controlling pain.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acupressure
Modern examples of this are the campaigns to Save the Whales, Elephants, Tigers, etc. as well as meeting and demonstrations to support political candidates.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Activismoperant conditioning that includes the use of action of some sort to avoid a negative stimulus. For instance, in laboratory research an animal observes a signal (e.g. a bell) that precedes an electric shock. If has learned to associate the bell with a shock, it will move away in an attempt to avoid that shock.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Avoidancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adductionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptive+Behavior+Scalehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptive+Acthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Et+Alhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ad+HocPeltzman Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Risk+CompensationPartial List Cuing Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrieval-Induced+ForgettingPartial List Cuing Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Part+Set+Cuing+EffectPartial List Cuing Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Part-List+Cuing+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditory+Spectrum
One branch of the ANS is responsible for gearing the body up for fight-or-flight in stressful situations (sympathetic nervous system, or SNS), or when a physical demand increases, and the other branch is responsible for returning the body systems to baseline and physical maintenance (parasympathetic nervous system, or PNS). When an organism needs a sudden increase in physical effort (as in the case of a threat), the SNS activates an increase in blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate, sweating – all functions which assist in supplying what is needed for sudden large-muscle movement. After the threat has passed, the PNS takes over by bringing the systems back to resting state and completing the routine maintenance needed to keep everything healthy.

The process of activating and deactivating bodily systems under normal circumstances is a delicate balance. When that balance is not functioning, most commonly, blood pressure and heart rate are noticeably affected. This shows up as orthostatic hypotension – when going from sitting to standing, blood pressure does not increase as needed to supply more blood to the brain. This creates lightheadedness. An unregulated heart rate also often occurs – difficulty increasing when needed, and/or decreasing when resting. Other symptoms include difficulty with digestion, sweating that is either lacking or excessive. The dysfunction is generally caused by an underlying health condition affecting the nerves that communicate with those functions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autonomic+Dysfunctionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autosomal+Aberrationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aversive+Stimulushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aversive+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Activities+Of+Daily+Living+%28ADLs%29paraphilia that does not precisely meet the diagnostic criteria outlined in the DSM-5.

Paraphilias are sexual disorders in which individuals only become aroused by inappropriate objects or fantasies. In his 2008 book on sexual pathologies, Anil Aggrawal compiled a list of 547 terms describing paraphilic sexual interests. He cautioned, however, that "not all these paraphilias have necessarily been seen in clinical setups." This is probably because some of them are so rare, seemingly innocuous, or so interlapped with other paraphilias that they have never been heavily studied or documented.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paraphilia+NOSparaphilia that involves having an intense sexual interest in amputees. Paraphilias are sexual disorders in which individuals only become aroused by inappropriate objects or fantasies.

Acrotomophilia is a poorly understood paraphilia that is still being researched but is believed to be an interest based on dominance. Another theory is feeling that the remains of the amputated limb is somehow seen as a phallic object.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AcrotomophiliaMidget.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proportionate+Dwarfismachondroplasia. This genetic or congenital condition causes the body to be disproportionate with a normal sized torso, short arms and legs, an enlarged head, and prominent brow ridge. Intelligence is usually normal. Sometimes dwarves suffer from health problems related to their small size and have life spans that are usually shorter than their normal-sized peers. The gene for achondroplasia was located in 1994 by scientists at the University of California in Irvine. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dwarfismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accommodation+Timehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acidosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquired+Dyspraxiasecondary reinforcers, they are learned and not innate like primary reinforcers (food, water, shelter). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquired+DriveSchwann cells surrounding the nerve start to grow abnormally. Symptoms include hearing loss, ringing in the ears, and unsteadiness. Treatment methods include regular monitoring, radiation, and surgical removal.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic+NeuromaLearning Curve.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquisition+CurveAcquired Drive.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PsycholAcoustic-mnestic Aphasia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anomic+AphasiaAcoustic-mnestic Aphasia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amnestic+AphasiaAbuse Defense.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abuse+Excuse+.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acephalic+MigraineVisual Aura.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Migrainehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Repeated+Measure+DesignFundamental Attribution Error.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attribution+ErrorZero-Sum Game.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zero-Sum+BiasWeber Fechner Law.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Weber%27s+LawTip-of-the-Tongue.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tip-of-the-Tongue+PhenomenomDecision Theory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+Of+Choice
For instance, the ideas that the earth revolves around the sun or that modern species evolved from earlier species were generally rejected at first and considered to be radical and untrue. The Semmesweis effect is named after the physician, Ignaz Semmelweis who noted that mortality rates fell to ten times a lower rate when doctors would wash their hands with an antiseptic substance in between each patient and after autopsies. His fellow physician peers rejected his discovery due to the belief that the hands of a gentleman would not be able to transmit disease. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Semmelweis+Reflex+%28Semmelweis+Effect%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Relevance+EffectGeneration Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Generation+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+PerceptionReactance Theory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reactance+Theory+EffectChoice-Supportive Bias.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Post-Purchase+RationalizationHot-Hand Fallacy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hot-Hand+PhenomenomAffective Forecasting.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hedonic+ForecastingCheerleader Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+Attractiveness+EffectBarnum Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Forer+EffectAnchoring Heuristic.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=FocalismCryptomnesia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=False+Memory+BiasExperimenter Bias.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expectation+Bias.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Observer%27s+Illusion+Of+TransparencyCorrelational Methods.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Correlational+ResearchErik Erikson.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Emotional+TheoryAddison's Disease.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HypocorticalismAddison's Disease.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenal+InsufficiencyVascular Accident.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=StrokeVascular Accident.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebrovascular+Accident+%28CVA%29Focusing Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Focusing+Illusionacoustic-mnestic aphasia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nominal+Aphasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learning+Curvehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquired+Speech+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustics+As+Emotionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic+Traumahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aconuresishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Midgethttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achondroplasiacones (color photoreceptors) of the eyes correctly identifying red, blue, and green light. Color blindness is the result of a lack or partial lack of those photoreceptors.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquired+Color+Blindnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acheirahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acenesthesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acetozalamidevisual accommodation for a near focus. Visual accommodation is the process by which the lens and pupils of the eyes change in order to focus on near and far objects. As people grow older their eyes become less flexible and less able to properly focus on the image that eye is seeing. When this happens the eye is unable to send a sharp and accurate image to the brain. This is the description of what happens in cases of near-sightedness. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accommodative+Insufficiencyformication, or delusional infestation, in that this sometimes involves a tactile hallucination, but formication differs in that it does not contain the element of extreme fear or phobia of insects.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acarophobia
For example, when adjusting to a different altitude, acclimatization occurs through subtle changes in the body such as lung capacity variations or a thickening or thinning of the blood to accommodate the oxygen content of the air. These adaptations are necessary to accommodate the new environment. Acclimatization is not a permanent state in that it is adaptive - if you return to your 'normal' altitude your body would adapt again in order to deal with the environmental changes. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acclimatizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acataphasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Academic+Intelligence+Taskhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abiotrophyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accentuation+EffectAcoustic Reflex.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Middle+Ear+Muscles+%28MEM%29+Reflex+Groupthink.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+PhenomenonHeritability Estimates.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Estimate
For some individuals LSD use can result in serious and negative psychiatric reactions such as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions especially if too high of a dosage is taken. Although not addictive, LSD can be dangerous in that serious accidents can occur while in the hallucinogenic ally-altered state of mind if the person is in an unsafe or unsecured environment. Modern research is focusing on LSD usage as a psychological treatment in small dosages and its effectiveness in treating depression, anxiety, and addiction. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acid+Triphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achievement+Quotienthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Academic+Self-Conceptsocioeconomic status, family education history, and results of intelligence tests. For the most part these are subjective judgements that can be proven false by the effort and desire to achieve academically or unforeseen opportunities presented to the individual. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Academic+Overachievementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Academic+Freedomhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Academic+Aptitudehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstracthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstract+Intelligence
"Concrete Experience" consists of a new experience or situation being encountered, or possibly a reinterpretation of an existing experience.

"Reflective Observation" is the new experience of particular importance as are any inconsistencies between the experience and subsequent understanding.

"Abstract Conceptualization" is defined as a reflection that gives rise to new ideas, or modifies an existing abstract concept.

Finally, the "Active Experimentation" is where the learner applies concepts to the world around them to see what results.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kolb%27s+Learning+Styleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absent+Griefhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysfunctional+RelationshipSexual Orientation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affectional+OrientationAcquiescence Bias.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquiescence+Response+Setpsychophysics. This paradigm is used when determining difference thresholds between items. In this protocol two stimuli (A and B) are presented to subjects along with a third (X). Subjects are asked to say which stimuli, A or B, matches X more closely. As an example, a subject is shown a picture of a shark (A) and cat (B). They are then shown a picture of a whale (X) and asked which from choice A or B it most closely resembles. As an animal that swims and lives in water, X would more closely resemble the shark.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ABX+ParadigmLength Time Bias.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Duration+NeglectEndowment Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Divestiture+Aversion+EffectGoogle Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Digital+AmnesiaDefensive Attribution Hypothesis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defensive+Attribution+BiasInfantile Amnesia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Childhood+AmnesiaBerkson's Paradox.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Berkson%27s+FallacyBase Rate Fallacy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Base+Rate+NeglectFrequency Illusion.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baader-Meinhof+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peak-End+RulOutgroup Homogeneity Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Outgroup+Homogeneity+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Not+Invented+Here+%28NIH%29retrograde amnesia. Experiments done with this show that when participants read aloud in series, their memories of words read were best for what they themselves had read while their memories of material read previously was much less.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Next-in-Line+EffectDecoy Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attraction+EffectDecoy Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Asymmetric+Dominance+EffectAmbiguous.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ambiguity+EffectTwinship.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alter+Ego+TransferenceSleepwalking.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SomnambulanceSocial Cognitive Theory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sociocognitive+TheorySchwann Cells.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=NeurolemmocytesTesting Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrieval+PracticeHallucinogens.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PsychedelicsPersonal Responsibility.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Individual+ResponsibilityImplicit Memory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nondeclarative+MemoryAcquiescence Bias.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AcquiescenceMyelination.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=MyelogenesisEcstasy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=MDMALacrimal Ducts.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tear+Ducts.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Face+BlindnessGenotype Environment Correlation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evocative+GenotypeLaw of Diminishing Returns.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diminishing+Returns.Decentering.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DecentrationPsychosexual Stages of Development.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achieving+StageLCD.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AcidFormification.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusional+Infestationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Triskaidekaphobia
For instance. someone rubbing their temples usually indicates that they have a headache while someone frowning and glaring indicates anger. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SemioticsDelirium Tremens.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstinence+DeliriumAbnormal Grief.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prolonged+GriefAbnormal Grief.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Complicated+Griefhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dynamic+TraitAcoustic Nerve.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vestibulocochlear+NerveAcoustic Reflex.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Staedipus+ReflexSemantic Encoding.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Semantic+Network+TheoryReactance Theory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Resistance+To+PersuasionReceptive Aphasia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Posterior+AphasiaReceptive Aphasia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wernicke%27s+AphasiaMiddle Term MemoryI.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intermediate-Term+MemoryAcromegaly. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=GigantismNightmare Disorder.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dream+Anxiety+DisorderFundamental Attribution Error.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Correspondence+BiasAcoustic Reflex.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attenuation+ReflexAffiliation Need.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affiliation+MotiveAcoustic Reflex.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditory+Reflexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abuse+Defensehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ocular+Migrainehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Scotomaabducens nerve, a cranial nerve, begins. This nucleus is located in the pons underneath the fourth ventricle. The abducens nucleus is part of the facial colliculus, a bulge on the dorsal end of the pons. There are two primary types of neurons located in the abducens nucleus, motor neurons and interneurons. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abducens+Nucleus
For example, in business a manager may take a calculated risk early on in the stages of a project. When the early risks are negated, he may then take greater calculated risks towards completion of the intended goal.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pseudocertainty+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pro-Innovation+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peltzman+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Partial+List+Cuing+Effect
For example, seeing the image of the "man in the moon" or the face on Mars are examples of the mind assigning a recognizable image to a natural feature. In psychology, pareidolia can be seen in the usage of projective tests such as the Rorschach inkblot test (hyperlink?) in which therapists use patients' interpretations of ambiguous stimuli to glean insight into their mental state. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pareidolia
For example, "If given the choice between a 90% chance of winning $20, or a 50% chance of winning $60, which would you choose?" These types of questions study attitudes about gambling and faith about luck in regards to chances of winning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Certainty+Effectphobia, an irrational fear of water among humans, it is most often used as another name for the disease rabies which, in animals, causes an aversion to drinking.

For humans, this fear would generally manifest itself as a fear of bodies of water (lakes, oceans, ponds, etc.) or of swimming and would most likely be treated through the use of cognitive-behavioral therapy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hydrophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abience
For instance, these types of tests are used in marital and pre-marital counseling. By using repetitive questioning of this type it can assess honesty, and whether a person is being genuine in their responses or "playing good" to make themselves look better.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aberrant+Responsehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abusive+Punishmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retinal+Migrainehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Aurahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Scintillating+Scotomahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxious+Depressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antipredatory+Aggression
Each of these personality types has its own way of relating to other people and the world at large, thereby influencing the individual's approach to life. For instance, a person with a gregarious personality makes friends easily and typically relates well to people while a shy personality may be stand-offish and have difficulty making friends and relating to others. Although personality traits are generally stable and consistent situational factors can have an impact on what personality traits are shown. For instance, a normally social and talkative person might be shy and quiet at a fancy party where they know no one. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personality+Traithttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Receptive+Language
An example of this could be an athlete in training that attempts to perform a feat that is beyond their level of training, ignoring the possibility of severe accident or injury.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neglect+Of+Probability
A simple example is a scenario with two drivers. Both choose to run a red light. One accidentally T-bones another car, the other gets through the intersection cleanly. Both committed the same traffic offense but are held to different standards legally. The one who got through the intersection cleanly gained their escape through "moral luck."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moral+Luck
For instance, a person who has always been a law-abiding driver may decide that it's OK for them to break traffic laws in small ways since they have always obeyed them before.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moral+Credential+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Modality+Effect
For instance, when a person goes grocery shopping and forgets their list they tend to remember only a few items. But this happens whether it is a short list or a long list. If a person has a long list they are more likely to remember a larger percentage of the items because the list was longer than if they tried to remember a short list.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=List-Length+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Level-of-Processing+Effect
A common example of this is when listening to a friend retell a humorous situation that happened to them years ago. They most likely won't tell the entire, detailed story - they may leave out some of the more mundane details but also may add drama to the retelling by adding dialogue, or commentary on what people involved were thinking or feeling, or other changes in order to retain the audience's interest. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Leveling+And+Sharpeninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Less-Is-Better+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Length-Time+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Information+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusory+Superiority
For instance, you get good grades in school and attribute that to many external variables ("The teacher likes me", "I wore my lucky necklace", I'm super lucky). Likewise, this could be a belief that bad things (like failing a test) happen due to external forces (I'm so unlucky, a witch cast a spell on me, the teacher hates me). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusion+Of+External+Agencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusion+Of+Asymmetric+Insighthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+Attribution+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extrinsic+Incentive+Motivationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endowment+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empathy+Gap
For instance, in the case of severe emotional trauma, a person might still react to that fear after many years (or even decades), even though some insensitive people might say to them,"Why don't you just get over it?" On the other end, someone who is going through a breakup may think they're going to feel horrible forever and never get over it. But as time passes, these bad feelings start to wane and most people feel better much sooner than they originally believed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Durability+Bias
For instance, a consumer wants to buy a refrigerator. They look at large units made by reputable companies but they also see a unit from on off-brand that has an unusual ice-maker. Despite the advantages of the more reputable units, they may choose the one with the unusual ice-maker because of the novelty. This is the decoy effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decoy+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decision+Theory
For instance, most of us have heard the joke of parental hyperbole, telling their children that their childhood was so difficult that "That they always had to walk to school in the snow and it was uphill both directions." ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Change+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bizarrenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vesicles
For example, most people see pets, farm animals, and wild animals as different categories of animals with different functions. For instance, some people eat rabbits and some people have pet rabbits. Speciesism is the belief that animal rights activists claim leads to the abuse and exploitation of animals.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Speciesism
For example, a person receives a head injury in a car accident. After recovery, their only area of impairment is with memory, with no other known impairments such as perceptual, visual spatial, or speech deficiencies. This is referred to as a single dissociation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Single+Dissociation
This causes anemia because there aren't enough healthy red blood cells to carry a sufficient amount of oxygen throughout the body. Sickle cell anemia is an inherited form of anemia — a condition in which there aren't enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen throughout your body. Symptoms include great pain in the joints, painful swelling, infections, delayed growth, and vision problems. There is no cure for this disease but there are treatments that can help alleviate the symptoms. Interestingly, possession of the sickle-cell trait creates a natural immunity to malaria.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sickle+Cell+Anemiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensitizer
An example of this would be words that are related to the sense of smell; scent, odor, stench, aroma, etc. Each of these words indicates the smell of something, but also indicate the quality of the smell (pleasant, unpleasant, delicate, strong). For example, "The coffee had a wonderful aroma" or "The garbage dump had a horrible stench."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Semantics+Differential+%28SD%29neurolemmocytes, are the cells of the peripheral nervous system that are responsible for the production of the myelin sheath that protects the synapses of the nerves. They are named after the 19th century German physiologist Theodor Schwann who first observed them. There are two types of Schwann cells: myelating and nonmyelating. Myelinating Schwann cells wrap themselves around the axons of the motor and sensory neurons to form the myelin sheath that protects the neurons.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schwann+Cellshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Friedrich+Schlegelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Scapegoating
For instance, sufferers of this may not even be able to go outside at night or turn off lights because of their fear. This fear most likely evolved in humans due to the reduction in vision that makes dangers and predators harder to see and escape from. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is very effective for this phobia and is effective in treating around 90% of patients. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nyctophobiavisual accommodation such as hyperopia (farsightedness). Complications of aphakia can include detachment of the vitreous or retina and glaucoma. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aphakiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Animatismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anaphorahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aminoketonehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absence+Culture
To an extent this can be a normal and healthy conceit but it can also be pathological when carried to extremes and used as an excuse to harshly judge or take advantage of others. At extreme levels this can be considered narcissism or narcissistic personality disorder. (hyperlink?) One of the symptoms of psychopathy is the belief that they are considerably smarter than anyone around them.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Above-Average+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abortion+Lawshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AbortifacientKubler-Ross model) into a final stage of acceptance and adjustment to the loss.

Abnormal grief is considered to be when a person seems to be unable to adjust and move forward following a loss. When this occurs professional assistance can be very helpful and often times necessary in order for the individual to deal with their grief. There is some research to suggest that dopamine levels may be associated with abnormal grief. A history of previous mental disorders can also be a contributing factor to the development of abnormal grief. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abnormal+Griefhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abiotichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Temperament+Traitssource traits developed by Raymond Cattell. It is considered the part of a person's basic disposition that retains their inherent capability to reach achievement marks - intended marks they set for their selves in life. Ability is a combination of talents, physical abilities, and mental abilities that combine to create the capacity to complete goals.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ability+Traithttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abecedarian+Projecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abdominal+Migrainehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Change+Of+Appetite
Memory, the prime function of human learning, is brought about by encoding of all information - encoding is considered the first step in the memory process. All information taken in is initially classified by the brain into information clusters (grouped into categories with other similar information) such as edible and inedible items, safe and unsafe activities, types of objects, etc. Information that is considered 'important' enough by the brain eventually moves from short-term memory storage into long-term memory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Survival+EncodingJungian psychology, splitting refers to a dissociation of possibility, which is demonstrated by changes in behavior and attitudes that are determined by complexes. Complexes are pervasive patterns of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes that exist in in the personal unconscious. These patterns are organized around a common theme, such as power or status. Splitting, although a serious symptom of psychopathology, does not rise to the level of dissociative personality disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Splitting
For instance, a worker requires certain supplies to perform their job properly and efficiently but are hampered by time-consuming procedures for procuring these tools. If the worker constantly has to spend an excessive amount of time and effort getting the supplies they need it interferes with the actual amount of time available to do their job. Additionally, situational constraints are factors which place limits on the extent to which attitudes, personal attributes, and motivation translate into behaviors and performance.

Some examples from an everyday workplace could be an uncomfortable temperature in the work area, a particularly noisy or annoying co-worker in the next cubicle, poor lighting, offensive odors, noisy machinery, or a particularly demanding supervisor.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Situational+Constraints
For instance, a depressed person may start using alcohol or drugs to help themselves feel better due to an underlying psychological condition. Or a person who develops a substance abuse problem may start feeling depressed, anxious, aggressive, or paranoid as a side-effect of long-term and detrimental drug use and/or addiction. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dual+Codinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conceptual+Distinctivenessclinical psychology. Some of these professionals are in research where they study the assessment, treatment, and etiology of mental illness. Others teach in in colleges, medical schools, or hospitals. Many engage in clinical practice while doing psychological assessment, providing psychotherapy, the development and administration of clinical programs, and forensics. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Psychologistshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avicenna+%28Ibn+Sina%29
An example of this is the use of uniforms by the military, many occupations, and some private schools to make the person's position, function, or affiliation in the community identifiable without singling anyone out as "special." This is opposite to the concept of acquired distinctiveness (hyperlink?) which is the addition of something (i.e. a skill or type of dress) that causes an individual or thing to singularize its presentation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquired+Similarityaphasia, amnestic aphasia, and nominal aphasia) is a part of the spectrum of aphasic problems that are the result of injury (due to accident or illness) to the brain. Acoustic-mnestic aphasia is specifically the inability to name objects, qualities, or conditions. This can occur following a serious head injury or as the result of a stroke. This is why many individuals who have suffered TBI (traumatic brain injury) or a severe stroke will have a hard time attaching names to items, feelings, or qualities. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic-mnestic+Aphasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic+Reflexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic+Nerve
For instance, English contains many homonyms, words that sound the same but have different meanings such as 'witch' and 'which.' Oftentimes, there may be subtle differences in pronunciation (caught vs cot) or major differences in emphasis that indicate differences between the words (invalid has different meanings depending on whether you emphasize the first or second syllable).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic+Featureshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic+Cueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Law+Of+The+Instrumenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Humor+Effect
For instance, when sending children to school parents who portray school as a "fun" experience that includes friends, playtime, and interesting activities will make it seem a whole lot more inviting than it would be to emphasize to children that school is also about rules, paying attention, sitting still, and learning. Likewise, a parent might especially stress the dangerous aspects of things such as fire, knives, guns, strange dogs, and other risky items to frighten children enough to leave these types of things alone - by framing these things as scary then the child will be more likely to avoid them.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Framing+Effect
An example would be worrying about an upcoming public talk you are required to give. You go over it again and again, picturing the worse case scenarios that could play out. You are exaggerating the expectations of the event - in reality the speech goes well and nothing extreme happens whatsoever. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exaggerated+Expectation+Bias
Typically referred to as a cognitive bias, this belief is easy to come by when looking at the outside evidence and from an ethnocentric point of view and may or may not be a valid conclusion. For instance, when observing another culture and seeing what appears to be a decaying infrastructure and a change in dress and moral strictures one might come to a conclusion that the society that this particular society is in decline, or in a state of "declinism."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Declinismcognitive bias that finds survey respondents have a tendency to agree with statements made in a survey.

This is especially prominent when the statement is a "truism" or there is some doubt as to the correct answer. This agreeableness is often deemed a sort to "yea-saying" or a tendency to agree when in doubt about the correct answer. This was tested by a researcher who administered both the California F-scale and a reverse-keyed (a reworded version that was intended to invoke answers opposite to the F-scale inventory) and found a positive correlation amongst the test subjects demonstrating agreeableness rather than honesty in their replies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquiescence+Bias
This is probably that, on the whole, women are more associated with positive social traits (being nurturing, showing care and love, etc) while men are more often equated with aggression, danger, and harm. This could possibly be a behavioral artifact reflecting a person's relationship with their mother and other female relatives.

For instance, in public women are perceived as being more approachable and less-threatening than men.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=%22Women+Wonderful%22+Effect
This is a concept in such fields as psychology, game theory, economics, and philosophy. Escalation of commitment is frequently used to justify earlier actions. An example of this would be someone who is gambling and decides to bet everything thing they have on one more hand in a card game. This type of move can mean gaining a fortune or losing everything. Because the person may have made more rational decisions that paid off earlier it reaches a point where the person begins to make irrational and illogical decisions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=%28Irrational%29+Escalation+Of+Commitmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=%22Well-Travelled+Road%22+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Benjamin+WhorfKorsakoff's syndrome - because these two disorders are frequently comorbid they are usually diagnosed in tandem as WKS.

It is generally agreed by experts that Wernicke encephalopathy results from severe acute deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1), while associated Korsakoff's syndrome is a chronic neurologic manifestation of Wernicke's encephalopathy. Symptoms of Wernicke's encephalopathy include vision disturbances, affected gait or ataxia (hyperlink?), and changes in mental state. Symptoms of Korsakoff's syndrome include anterograde and retrograde amnesias, and at least one of the following: apraxia, aphasia, agnosia, or a severe decline in executive functions. (all hyperlinks) ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wernicke-Korsakoff+Syndrome+%28WKS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vas+Deferenshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Twinship
This concept, theorized by German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), purports that as human beings we are "thrown" at birth into a world (class, nationality, gender, etc.) that we have no control over and must learn to cope with. It further purports that, after being "thrown" into a world that is not of own choosing, we then have to learn to navigate the challenges that come with that world: frustrations, sufferings, demands, social conventions, and ties of kinship and duty. These challenges, and how we cope with them or rise above them, ultimately becomes our identity.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thrownessthanatology. Named for Thanatos, the ancient Greek god of death, they study the changes that take place in the body and mind prior to death. They also may study the post-mortem aspects of death. This study includes not only the physical aspects of death, such as bodily changes, but also the social, philosophical, cultural and religious aspects of death and dying.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thanatologist
For example, "What happened first, the chicken or the egg?" Simplistically, in current time, the chicken has the temporal precedence in this question. But then you say "but the chicken came from an egg, so maybe the egg came first." Therefore, when applying this question to the idea of evolution of species, the discussion becomes murkier and much more difficult to answer.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Temporal+Precedencemidbrain. It is primarily responsible for auditory and visual reflexes. The tectum is divided into the superior and inferior colliculi. The superior colliculi is responsible for visual processing and control of eye movements. The inferior colliculi is responsible for auditory processing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tectumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Syncopeplasticity.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synaptogenesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Suggestibilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Substantiationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=StateRene Descartes, and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz are considered by many to be among the top three Rationalists. His most famous work is Ethics, which posits that god is not the creator and ruler of the universe but has evolved into nature itself. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baruch+Spinoza+Or+Benedict+De+Spinozahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Savant
For example, the lab mouse ate too many food pellets and experienced satiety, no longer wanting to hit the lever to get food any longer. However, to be satiated can also be used to mean feeling totally satisfied whether it be with eating and drinking, intellectual stimulation, being surrounded by good friends. or really anything that can bring contentment.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Satietyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jean+Jacques+Rousseausocial learning theory and locus of control. Moving away from psychoanalytical thought and behaviorism, Rotter's focus was on the social aspects of behavior and learning. In 1954, his seminal work Social Work and Clinical Psychology was published. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Julian+Rotter
An example of this could be memory of algebra procedures. Many people forget algebraic procedures quickly unless they review them frequently. A relearning session can test how quickly a person can review and remember the material they have forgotten.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relearn
For example, the average food preparation for a college student is relatively simple when compared to the recipes made by a high end chef. In the social sciences there are three identified areas of relativity: linguistic, moral, and cultural. All three of these factors deal with identifying and quantifying differences without passing judgement on those differences.

For instance, depending on climate some cultures wear heavy clothing while cultures from warm climates wear little in the way of clothing. In the past, heavily-clothed Europeans traditionally equated clothing with morality thus pejoratively accusing the lightly-dressed indigenous peoples of the countries they colonized as being immoral. However, as morality is a relative concept, this is an example of negatively judging another culture on the basis of something as superficial as clothing styles. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=RelativityCarl Rogers' client-centered therapy (hyperlink?) in which the counselor listens to what the client is saying and then reframes the material and repeats it back to them. It is a technique used in counseling and therapy that is comprised of two main elements: the therapist attempts to understand the speaker's idea and then offers the idea back to the speaker in order to confirm the idea has been understood correctly. This technique permits the client to "hear" what they were saying and evaluate the material for themselves. This can help the client to assess for themselves the logic and ramifications of what they have been saying and help determine whether or not they are valid. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reflective+Listeninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reciprocatehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Readiness
In research and experimental psychology, random assignment is often used in creating groups of test subjects. This means that subjects are assigned to study groups without any special regard to factors such as age, gender, health, or socioeconomic status. Random assignment assures that no results from the experiment were due to other factors other than the treatment or experimental condition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Randomness
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Punnett_Square.svg/1200px-Punnett_Square.svg.png]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Punnett+Squarehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychophysical+Methods
For instance, "The teenager's negative behavior is the result of a conflict between his idealized self and current environment." rather than saying that "the teenager's behavior was totally unacceptable for the situation." An individual using psychobabble may use jargon and overly complicated words and explanations in order to give more credence and authority to the information they are conveying. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychobabblehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychohttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proximodistalcomorbidity which is when two or more conditions exist simultaneously. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PremorbidPremack's Principle in 1959. His early work focused on the cognitive abilities of chimps with his later research expanding his observations to human subjects.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=David+Premackhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phenomenalism
As an example, "Many people claim to have seen the phenomena of UFOs and firmly believe what they've seen something genuine, but science continues to have doubts about their existence." In psychology, phenomena consist of frequently seen human behaviors such as the bystander effect in which as the number of witnesses to a mishap or accident increases the likelihood that someone will help decreases. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personal+Shadowhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personal+Responsibility
For instance, "The student showed perseverance in the pursuit of his academic career by working diligently at his studies and trying hard to make straight As." Perseverance can also indicate the continuation of effort or speech past any need, sometimes to the point of annoyance for the persons around them. This is different from the term "to perseverate" which indicates the continuation of speech or action after outside stimulation has ceased. Perseveration is a symptom in some psychological disorders such as schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perseverance peripheral nervous system (PNS), (hyperlink?) the portion of the nervous system that branches off from the spinal cord and goes throughout the body.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peripheralhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pedagogyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Osteoporosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurofibrilhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multidimensionalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Monozygotehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lacrimal+Ductshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Weber%96Fechner+Lawhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nazir+Al-Din+Al-Tusi
An example of this could in testing water samples for harmful bacteria -- having no control over the vitamin/mineral content that might be present and it having an effect of the bacteria that skews the results. In psychological or social science research studies, variations can occur that are the results of differences in participants' intelligence, education, past experiences, mood, and other variables. Random assignment is often used in order to try to minimize the risk of systematic variation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Systematic+Variation
For example, you will remember more information if you study for an exam for an hour every day for a week leading up to the exam than if you "crammed" and studied 7 hours the night before an exam. Spaced repetition is when the intervals in between studying would be gradually increased. This type of learning and studying has been shown to be very effective when you need to learn mass amounts of information that you must be able to recall. For example, math formulas or vocabulary for a new language. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spaced+Repetitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Muhammed+Ibn+Zakariya+Al-Raziclassical conditioning, occasion setting refers to the transfer of unconditional responses (URs) from one conditioned stimulus (CS) to another.

For instance, this could transferring the salivation of dogs to the anticipation of food from one stimulus (the sound of a bell ringing) to another (a light flashing). This transfer could be accomplished by means of pairing the two CS for awhile and then phasing out the unwanted stimulus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Occassion+SettingREM phase of sleep. Although nightmares are a common occurrence that all people experience, it is the frequency and severity that sets this apart as a disorder as it can severely affect a person's life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nightmare+Disorder
For example, the memory of school tasks often fall into this category. Most of us learned mathematical rules in algebra along with grammar and punctuation rules in early schooling and remembered them at least as long as you were being tested on it. But now, as adults, our memories of these subjects often have faded.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Middle-Term+Memory
For instance, the mind can visualize actions (such as a sports performance) that the body can then emulate. Likewise, exercise activates endorphins that can cause a mental "high" that is similar to drug use and causes a person can feel good. In sociology, interactionism becomes a theoretical perspective that tries to derives social processes from human interactions. These processes (such as conflict, cooperation, or identity formation) are examined as a study of how individuals can shape their society and are likewise shaped by society. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interactionismsocial identity theory. An in group can, surprisingly, form quite quickly based on the interests and preferences of the persons involved.

For example, cliques (in groups) form quickly and easily in high school: athletes, fashionistas, intellectuals, etc. For adults, in-groups often revolve around politics, religion, or cultural groups but can also include civic-minded organizations (such as Rotary Club).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=In-Group+Phenomena
For instance, different cultures have different eating customs: in some cuisines eating insects or snakes is commonplace while in other cultures this may be considered unorthodox and unusual. If someone from a culture that didn't eat insects were offered fried scorpions they may be automatically revolted or even feel nauseous at the idea just because of these "implicit" cognitions and biases they are unaware of. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Implicit+Social+Cognitions
For example, the implicit norms that have come to exist surrounding the use of ATMs; staying well behind the person using the ATM or even remaining in your car until the person currently using it is finished, not looking at the screen when they enter their information, etc. No one has ever set these rules down in writing, they are just understood. Another example of an implicit norm is standing facing forward in a crowded elevator of strangers. Although there is no written rule stating that you should face forward in an elevator it would be rare to see someone facing backwards!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Implicit+Normshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hierarchical+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=General+Affective+Aggression+Model+%28GAM%29+Gustav Fechner is credited with the development of a logarithmic scale, derived from Weber's law, that measures the relationship between the actual change in a physical stimulus and the perceived change. Weber's law, along with Fechner's law, relate to human perception of the senses: vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fechner+Scalehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Correspondent+Inferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ibn+Sina+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ibn+Rusd+%28Ibn+Rushd%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hasan+Ibn+Al-Haytham
There are four main categories of motivations that each have four sub-categories: cognitive preservation motives (consistency, causation, categorization, cues), cognitive growth motives (independence, novelty, teleological, utilitarian), affective preservation motives (tension reduction, self-expression, ego defense. reinforcement), and affective growth motives (assertion, affiliation, identification, modeling). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=McGuire%27s+Psychological+Motivationsinterference that occurs in a within subjects or repeated measures experiment. Interference occurs when the learning of new information or behaviors interacts with previous learning or memories and interferes with the acquisition of the new information. Treatment effects can be the result of the order in which the treatment was administered. This can cause a drug or treatment to appear to be either more effective or less effective than it actually is. A previous treatment may affect the placebo effect in participants.

Asymmetric transfer between conditions is surmised to be more common than is generally acknowledged. Some of the possible causes of asymmetric transfer are believed to be state dependent learning, not enough time lapsing between treatments, and the acquisition of learning techniques. Counterbalancing can be used as a means of avoiding asymmetric transfer. When counterbalancing is used to assign levels of a condition to participants to avoid asymmetric transfer it must be verified that the effect actually occurred - this is usually accomplished by using a statistical test like an analysis of variance. When doing this the researchers want there to be an insignificant group effect.

When the group effect is statistically significant then asymmetric transfer has occurred and counterbalancing did not work. If there is a likelihood that asymmetric transfer will occur, then a between-subjects design is probably the better option.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Asymmetric+Transferbehaviorism, was pioneered by B.F. Skinner in the 1930's in order to explore mental and intellectual components of behaviorism along with the passive cause and effect of simple Pavlovian behavior studies (i.e when food is presented to a dog if you ring a bell the dog eventually salivates because it associates the ringing bell with food which causes the instinctive response of salivation). In radical behaviorism, this means studying the natural urge that living creatures have to explore their environment and learn the possibilities that behavior might have on the environment.

For example, a rat exploring a cage until it finds a lever that dispenses food and experiments with it in the name of receiving food.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Radicalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Korsakoff%27s+Syndrome
For instance, two neighbors are having an argument about some disruptive neighborhood problem. In this case, both neighbors may see themselves as the good and reasonable one while the other is disruptive and argumentative. Two groups at war may both simultaneously view themselves as the just, moral heroes in the scenario while viewing the others are amoral, cruel, and evil. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mirror-Image+PerceptionJohn B. Watson in the early decades in the 20th century This particular perspective on psychology concentrated only on the observation of observable cause and effect reactions without consideration of the mental components of behavior and the intellectual workings of the subject's mind. This particular study was an expansion of the observations of physical cause and effect that were made by Pavlov in the 19th century. In the 1930's, B.F. Skinner chose to add study of the intellectual workings of behaviorism in a school of thought known as radical behaviorism. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Methodological+Behaviorism
A common example is the two-dimensional cube that most of us have doodled in our notebooks at some point in our lives. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Squarecubetesseract.png/1200px-Squarecubetesseract.png]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pictorial+Depth+Cueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Path+Analysis
This approach to preschool and primary education is essentially self-directed and is aimed at inculcating the principles of respect, responsibility, and community through exploration and discovery. The guiding assumption of this style of schooling holds that children, while forming their own personality during early years of development, are endowed with "a hundred languages" through which they can express their ideas and learn at their own speed while pursuing their own interests.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reggio+Emilo+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somesthesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Conflict+Theory
For instance, happy memories are more easily or intensely remembered when one is already feeling happy and the same goes for sadness or anger. Think about it, you're at a picnic with your family having a good time. It's really easy to flash back to other good times that you've had.

Likewise, if you're fighting with a partner you're more likely to bring up incidents or emotions that occurred in previous fights - the similar mood brings those memories to mind more readily.

This is related to state dependent learning in which an individual is more likely to recall information when they are in the same state of consciousness that they were when they learned the information. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=State+Dependent+Memories
For instance, you're planning a trip from New York to California. To do this you would start with a road atlas or GPS, find a starting point in NYC, and figure out which roads to take to arrive at your eventual destination of California most efficiently. This is generally opposite to the working backward heuristic that is often used in math and logic problems in which the problem is solved from starting at the end and working backwards. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Working+Forward+Heuristic
For example, something white will appear to be the same shade of white no matter how much light it is being exposed to - noontime sunlight or a soft lamplight at night. Although the lighting has changed the shade of white seems to be the same. An object will retain brightness constancy as long as the object and its surroundings are in light of the same intensity. Brightness constancy is not maintained when the brightness of the background is different from the object. An object will appear darker if the background is lighter than the object. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brightness+Constancyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Binocular+Rivalryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absorptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proletariatreinforcer - you don't have to train an animal (or human!) to want food, they naturally want it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primaryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prematurity
For instance. a concentrated sugar solution in a semipermeable bag is placed in a container of plain water. Eventually osmosis will occur and diffuse the sugar until both water samples are equal in sugar content. In everyday usage, osmosis can refer to diffusion or intake of knowledge or understanding. For example, the student learned Spanish by osmosis just by being around Spanish-speaking students.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Osmosis
For instance, a scientist might study the growth of a organ from its earliest stage in the developing fetus until the death of the organism being studied. Ontogenesis or ontogeny is the developmental study of an organism within its own specific and personal lifetime. This differs from phylogeny which is the evolutionary history of a species (and related species) through genetics. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ontogenesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Obtusenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nontasterhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nonsystematiccentral nervous system (the brain and spinal cord). If the brain determines the threat to be valid it then responds with a pain signal to the specific body part so that the organism can attempt to eliminate the threat. This process is called nociception. There are two types of nociceptors - peptidergic and nonpeptidergic nociceptors.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nociceptorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuropeptideautonomic nervous system.

Neurological pathologies include conditions like dementia and other conditions that arise from a physical deterioration of the brain and nerves. Researchers study the ways that the nervous system deteriorates with age and disease, as well as possible methods of healing and repairing the nervous system when injured or affected by disease or injury.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurologicalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interrogativehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interrogationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intergroup+Conflict
For instance, as a child grows their lives may contain varying contexts of home, school, church, youth programs, and sports to name a few. While each of these venues is separate from the others they also overlap like a Venn diagram with each other and also with the life facets of other people making development and life multicontextual. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multicontextualhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Localizinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Languorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Microsystemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Invarienthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ketogenic+Diet
For example, illusions are used by magicians to have you believe in their magic tricks. Another illusory thing could be your own imagination such as seeing pictures of insects on TV and feeling the sensation of having them crawling on you. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusory
Collaborative group recall was consistently found to be lower than the collective recall for the four individuals. Research suggests that collaborative inhibition occurs because group members often disturb each other’s memory retrieval strategies when they are all recalling as a group.

For instance, a group of individuals is formed to research and report on a topic. They work together as group sometimes and individually at times over the course of a few weeks. Due to collaborative inhibition, when it comes time for their presentation each individual will be able to recall more information that they worked on independently rather than what they learned and worked on as a group. This concept is important for circumstances such as juror decision making, workplace committees, and collaborative learning efforts. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Collaborative+Inhibition
An example could be that after dropping your fork or spoon while at the dinner table and requesting a clean utensil while jokingly stating that your first utensil "jumped" off the table. Anthropomorphic thinking is commonplace when we attribute human feelings and thought patterns to animals, such as thinking your dog looks guilty when it has done something bad. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anthropomorphic
For instance, a mountain climber goes on an expedition to summit a major mountain peak. After a successful completion of the trek, the peak-end rule suggests the climber will feel satisfaction and accomplishment from their experience judging it based on their most powerful memory - when they reached the top of the peak and looked around, relishing what they had just accomplished. They will be be less likely to judge the experience based on any pain, inconvenience, bad weather, or injuries that they experienced on the expedition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peak-End+Rule
An example of the law of triviality, a cognitive bias, would be a group that gets so involved discussing the causes and minor details of a problem that they fail to develop actual solutions to the problem. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parkinson%27s+Law+Of+Triviality
For instance, one person might set a fire that does serious damage. This is an example of a harmful action. Another person might see the fire set but not bother to report it. This is an example of harmful omission. Are they equally responsible for the fire damage? Although the consequences of this are similar (the fire caused great damage) the omission bias suggests that the individual who started the fire would be judged more harshly than the person who saw it and didn't report it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Omission+Bias
Impact bias, a cognitive bias, is the tendency to overestimate the intensity or the duration of future emotions and states of feeling. This overestimation can occur for both positive and negative feeling states. Most of us can remember times as children believing that "If I get that for my birthday I will never want anything ever again and it will be my favorite thing forever!" This emotional reaction may last for awhile, but then eventually fades when boredom sets in or something else is desired.

Another example would be experiencing a breakup and feeling as if you'll never be happy with anyone else again. But give it some time, some healing and eventually the negative feelings will go away and you can picture yourself being with someone else and being just as happy as you were before. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Impact+Bias
The observer's illusion of transparency is the overestimation of how well a person understands the mental states of others. This bias is similar to the illusion of symmetrical insight.

For example, you are very nervous about giving a speech in front of a large group of people. The illusion of transparency may occur if you perceive the audience as being hyper aware of your nervousness and noticing every slip up and tremble in your voice, every tiny slip up in speech. In actuality, audiences don't notice minor things such as this to the degree the speaker thinks they are. In regards to the observer's illusion of transparency, it is impossible to truly and fully understand another person's emotional state even if you are good at reading emotions. When trying to empathize instead of saying "I understand how you feel" replace that statement with something more neutral like "I can't imagine how you feel."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusion+Of+Transparency
According to research conducted by Michael I. Norton, Daniel Mochon, and Dan Ariely, the IKEA effect occurs when a person puts a disproportionate value on something they created. In relation to this, it refers to a greater sense of pride that a person may take in an event, decision, or achievement that they actually took part in creating.

There is believed to be a relation with justification of effort which has shown that the more effort someone puts into creation or an action the more it will be valued by that person. Marketers noted in the 1950s instant cake mixes were not selling well as homemakers felt they weren't invested in the process and didn't value the result as they didn't really contribute to it. By simply adding a step that required an egg to be cracked made the bakers feel more involved and therefore they valued the results more -- increasing instant cake mix sales. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=IKEA+Effect
One theory for this effect suggests that we can more easily identify with an individual victim therefore making us able to relate to them and feel more compassion. This is especially true if they appear particularly attractive or vulnerable (note how many charities uses cute children or adorable animals to represent them). There are other possible aspects to this cognitive bias. Research also has shown we are more likely to feel sympathy and assign less blame to individuals who are similar to us. Another theory suggests that by having one identified victim we perceive that we are more likely to be able to help than with a large, ill defined grouping of people. Often times this quote attributed to Josef Stalin (quoted by Nisbett and Ross, 1980) is used to describe the identifiable victim effect: "The death of a single Russian soldier is a tragedy. A million deaths is a statistic."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identifiable+Victim+Effect
For instance, if you learn a new word it seems like all of a sudden everyone you meet is using that word, it's popping up in movies and articles you read. This is known as the frequency illusion. The illusion in this is that it is not that everyone is all of a sudden using a new word, it's just that you have become acutely aware of that word and when you hear it you take note of it. This is ultimately due to the human mind's ability to edit both recognition and memory and to ignore things that it doesn't recognize. So it's because you now know and recognize the word that it seems more frequent - it actually isn't increasing in frequency. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frequency+Illusion
For instance, this often occurs during reunions - typically people attending don't recall the negative things that occurred but are more likely to remember and celebrate friendship and the positive events that occurred. They are more likely to do this because the bad memories have faded while the positive memories remained strong.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fading+Affect+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Supertasterneuron, neurotransmitters are released by the axon terminal of a neuron. The neurotransmitters then bind to the receptors located on the on the dendrites of another neuron, activating the receptors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurotransmission
Neurilemmas are sometimes called a sheath of Schwann or Schwann's sheath because they are the outer layer or covering, like a sock, of Schwann cells. Schwann cells (also known as neurolemmocytes) are the main glial cells of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The neurilemma, as the outermost layer, serves a protective function for peripheral nerve fibers. Schwann cells are either myelinating or nonmyelinating. Myelinating Schwann cells form around the axons of sensory and motor neurons to form the myelin sheath. Axons are myelinated by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system therefore lacking neurilemma. A tumor that occurs in the neurilemma is called a neurilemoma. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurilemmaglial cells. Myelination begins in the 3rd trimester and continues through adolescence. This myelin sheath functions as a layer of electrical insulation that is necessary for the nerves to function correctly. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Myelinationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Morphhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mitochondria
This type of feeling or behavior is referred to as misanthropy. Misanthropes often disagree with other humans acceptance and consensus about reality. Although misanthrope is broadly used to refer to someone hating all humans most misanthropes have normal relationships with some people - it is broad society as a whole they feel disdain for. Misanthropic views are common among many individuals, often used in satire and comedy. True, absolute misanthropy as a personality trait is less common. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Misanthrope
For example, in a state of mindlessness a person may forget to turn off their oven and lock their door as they leave the house. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mindlessnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Milieu+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Franz+Freiderich+Anton+Mesmer
The macrosystem is the larger culture as a whole and includes socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. This further includes children, their parents and school, and their parent's workplace as part of a larger cultural context. As culture evolves and changes over time, the macrosystem changes as well making it unique for successive generations. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Macrosystemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Machismohttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Von+Leibnizhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jihadhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jet+Laghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Invincibility+Fablehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Innocencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Innate
In social and cognitive psychology, as humans we acquire implicit attitudes, feelings, and beliefs that are learned from familial upbringings and social environments without anyone explicitly expressing these ideas. Implicit attitudes can include prejudices, stereotypical thinking, and particular ways of reacting to circumstances. Implicit attitudes are similar in that they are attitudes that have become so ingrained and automatic that they exist with little or no thought being given to how they developed or if they are fair or legitimate beliefs - common examples include prejudice and bigotry.

The IAT, or Implicit Association Test, is a test that exists in social psychology to measure implicit attitudes - the power of a person's automatic associations between mental representations of objects concepts in memory. Simply put, this test evaluates and exposes deeply ingrained attitudes and prejudices. There is some controversy regarding the IAT in that it is isn't truly certain if it measures anything beyond the existence of these implicit memories.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Implicitnesspositive psychology.

For example, a person wins the lottery which drastically increases their happiness levels for awhile. But shortly afterwards their stress beings to increase: their family and 'friends' begin to come out of the woodwork asking for money, they realize they have to spend so much time and effort managing their money, people attempt to take advantage of them, they begin to wonder if people like them for themselves or only because they are rich, etc. Shortly after their win their general happiness levels return to what they were before they won the lottery as the negative aspects of this situation temper the positive aspects. Hedonic adaptation has occurred - they have returned to their hedonic set point (sometimes called the happiness set point) which is essentially their baseline for happiness. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hedonic+Treadmillhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glycationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Front+Matter
In other fields, especially those that rely heavily in sociological measures, you will hear the terms human factors and risk factors. These terms refer to are the multitude of variables that influence human behavior: intelligence, upbringing, temperament, environment, outside influences, education, and socioeconomic class, just to mention a few.

It is often possible to understand social difficulties and maladaptive behaviors when these various human factors are taken into consideration. In statistics, factor analysis is a statistical method that identifies clusters or groups of related items (called factors) on a test. These factors can range from types of questions to different aspects of personality.

For example, when you take a multiple choice test, a factor analysis can be conducted to ascertain what types of questions you did best on and worst on (maybe they did best on factual types of questions but really poorly on conceptual types of questions). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Factors
For example, the extension of the word cat would include every cat in history, from Garfield to your pet house cat. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extensionlaw of diminishing returns states that anything that is repeated too often, or too many times, eventually returns smaller (or diminished) rewards. An example of this could be going to an amusement park. If you go once or twice a year the experience is very exciting, filled with joy and fun. But imagine if you went to this amusement park every single day. Eventually the wonder and excitement would fade and you wouldn't experience the same levels of amusement that you initially did. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diminishdependent personality disorder which is characterized by extreme dependence on others, a lack of independence, and an extreme fear of being alone. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dependent
For instance, once a person has learned to shoot a basketball with their right hand it is not difficult to transfer that learning to the left hand. This transfer of learning is made possible by the two-way information traffic that exists through the corpus callosum, the band of fibers in the brain that allows the two hemispheres to communicate and transfer information. A useful and helpful application is that following brain damage some skills and knowledge can be transferred from one area of the brain to another.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bilateral+Transfer
For instance, imagine a conversation starts up regarding car troubles - your coworker then tells a ridiculous story about a flat tire and how always having a spare tire is important. The coworker just told an anecdote.

In legal settings, anecdotal evidence refers to personal testimony and other subjective evidence that isn't backed up scientifically. An example of anecdotal evidence would be a witness who casually talks about the strange behaviors of the defendant. Although this might be relevant to the case it's not officially documented in any manner (such as with photographs, videos, scientific observation, etc) - therefore it's anecdotal. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anecdote
For instance, graduating from 8th grade or high school is an achievement as is being selected for the football team or making a high grade in a class. A desire for achievement is normal is normal for humans, but for some people the desire for achievement becomes a "need," not just a desire that can cause a person to continue to push themselves further and further.

Need for Achievement ( also referred to as n Ach) is the degree to which someone is motivated to set and reach goals. Coined by Henry Murray, individuals with high n Ach are usually driven to succeed for internal, personal reasons rather than by external pressures. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achievementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypersensitivityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Humoralhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hologram
In the experiment nurses (unaware they were in an experiment) were given orders, by doctors that they didn't know, to administer "fatal" doses of a fictional drug to patients. In this experiment 21 out of 22 nurses obeyed the doctors' order to administer these drugs even though they intellectually knew that the dosage was wrong. This experiment was focused on obedience to authority figures and, compounding on the work of Stanley Milgram in 1963, shows that many individuals will blindly obey authority figures even though they intellectually know they may be harming another person. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Charles+K.+Hofling
For example, in a royal hierarchy the king and queen are at the very top followed by princes/princesses, then dukes/duchesses. In psychology, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, visualizes human needs as a pyramidal structure in which the fulfillment of higher level needs build on the lower level needs, much like a pyramid builds smaller levels from the ground up.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hierarchieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heterosexismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Johann+Frederich+Herbart
However, even if both parents are carriers, the odds of inheriting this disorder is about 25%. In the past affected persons rarely survived childhood, but now the condition can be managed through regular infusions of clotting agents into the bloodstream. Historically hemophilia was referred to as "Royal disease" due to its high occurrence within royal families - Queen Victoria of England (1819-1901) was a famous carrier of hemophilia which she passed down to many European royal houses. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemophilia
For example, language skills are primarily located in the left hemisphere while spatial reasoning and mechanical skills are associated with the right. Brain imaging techniques have allowed researchers to identify hemispheric specialization areas. The two hemispheres of the brain communicate using the corpus callosum, a band of fibers that passes information between the two. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemispheric+Specializationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemisphere
See also: Disorganized Schizophrenia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hebephreniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glycinehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frenzyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Footbindinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=James+R.+Flynn
For example, exsanguination is sometimes used when hunting - typically the animal's blood is drained by an incision. Exsanguination can also refer to someone dying by losing a lot of blood. If someone 'bleeds to death' they are experiencing exsanguination. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exsanguination
For instance, when learning to repair a car you are learning how to attach and test different pieces of the engine. However, beyond that physical learning a person is also absorbing how the parts work together to make the engine function correctly and reflecting on how the engine works as a whole.

Also see, See Discovery Learning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experiential+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evocativehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Episode
For example, in interior design this could mean using items from different styles of decoration to create an interesting effect such as mixing antiques and modern pieces for a specific look.

In psychological counseling eclecticism can refer to the eclectic perspective. This means choosing methods and techniques from different schools of thought to produce positive results and a tailored plan for a specific individual. For example, therapists commonly use methods from both behavioral and cognitive perspectives in order to treat depression. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eclecticism
In verbal speech, echoing this frequently occurs in individuals with autism spectrum disorders, Tourette Syndrome, schizophrenia, aphasia, and dementia. Called echolalia, the individual repeats words and phrases heard from another person and can be immediate or delayed.

An example of echolalia would be asking a person "Do you want to go for a ride?" - an echolalic response to this question would be "Do you want to go for a ride? Go for a ride? Do you want to go for a ride?" Instead of answering the question they are just echoing it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Echoing
One method of this is reframing the truth. An example would be replacing "The army is retreating" with "The army solidified its new lines 30 miles closer to the homeland." This is doublespeak in that although the replacement is a true statement it is ambiguous and masks the severity of the truth. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Doublespeak
For example, a business, school, or organization may seek to diversify their population by recruiting individuals from a variety of ethnicities, genders, sociopolitical backgrounds, or socioeconomic statuses. Another form of diversification is the act of spreading out one's resources - much like a business will have a primary product but will also sell other products and have investments in other businesses.

In finance, it is often advised to "diversify your assets" and diversification is investing or allocating finances in a way so that investments are spread out over varied resources. This lessens risk in that if one investment fails others will make up for it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diversification
For example, a parent says to come into the house and the child laughs and runs away. Disobedience can also be a refusal to follow an instruction or command because of an emotional or moral belief that the command is not proper or just. An example of this would be a business directing an employee to do something illegal and the employee refuses to comply.

In psychology, Stanley Milgram conducted famous experiments on obedience which showed that disobedience of authority figures would occur in certain circumstances while in others complete and total obedience occurred. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disobediencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disentangle
For example, a music recording that keeps on starting and stopping again would be described as being discontinuous. In human behavior, discontinuing is used to describe the ceasing of bad habits such as smoking, drug use, or self-destructive behavior patterns. Discontinuous can also refer to the opposite of a continuous variable or continuous reinforcement schedule. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discontinuinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Destructive+Obediencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dentition
This term originated from an ancient Greek philosophical school known as the Cynics who believed that virtue and living simply in accordance with nature were of supreme importance while shirking materialism, status, and wealth. Now if someone is described as cynical they are typically also described as jaded or suspicious of the motivations of others, believing them to be disingenuous or greedy.

For example, in our modern world many people are cynical about politics because they don't trust or believe in politicians and feel as if they are only participating for their own self-interests. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cynicism
Recall comes in 3 types; free recall, cued recall, and serial recall. Cued recall, or cueing, is the action of giving a clue or prompt to another person in order to receive a reaction.

For example, in acting, this is the action of reminding an actor of their lines by feeding them the first few words in the sentence to prompt their recall. This is essentially a retrieval cue. In psychology it can be the act of providing a test subject, either human or animal, with a signal to act. For instance, when dealing with an animal test subject this might be sounding a bell or buzzer to get a reaction such as signifying that food is available. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cueing
Proposed by Raymond Cattell, crystallized intelligence is the overall learned knowledge and experience we acquire as we age. For example, vocabulary and facts are examples of crystallized intelligence. This differs from fluid intelligence (hyperlink?) which is a type of 'on your toes' thinking such as being able to solve problems, identify patterns, and use logic to meet new challenges. Typically, crystalized intelligence increases which age while fluid intelligence decreases with age. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Crystallizedsexual response cycle. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Continencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contentment
For example, the spouse or parent of a coma patient may be designated as a conservator to handle their business affairs while they are in that condition. Additionally, conservator can be a person who has been appointed to oversee the welfare and maintenance of a building, art collection, museum, library, etc.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conservator
For example, in literature an author may refer to a cloudy day, but in addition to reporting the weather they are also trying to create a mood of gloom or sadness in their story. A denotation is the precise, specific definition of a word whereas connotations have other ideas or associations along with the literal definition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Connotation
For instance, when visually processing both the eyes and mouth of a face, this would be considered configural processing. In addition to configural the terms relational and holistic are used in face perception terminology as well. Relational processing is a referral to context-based retrieval (remembering how the emergent traits relate to each other). Holistic processing refers to a "first-order" grouping process that distinguishes one face from another without focusing on any one trait or its grouping.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Configuralhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cholinergichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cephalocaudal+Trend
For example, a rash that was spreading from the face to the neck, then to the chest followed by the abdomen, would be said to be spreading in a cephalocaudal fashion.

The cephalocaudal gradient of growth or cephalocaudal trend refers to the body's changing growth patterns, and spatial proportions, over time. The most obvious example of this is how a child's head, which seems disproportionately large when compared to the infant's body gradually becomes proportional as the child's body grows.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cephalocaudal
One important biorhythm is the Circadian rhythm - the daily (diurnal) rhythms of day and night which occurs on a roughly 24-25 hour schedule. Biorhythms can also refer to predictions of behaviors and experiences using physical, emotional, and intellectual 'cycles.' In the 19th century, this theory was popularized by Wilhelm Fleiss and used biorhythm cycles as a predictive agent for things such as health, well-being, and personal success. This theory, considered a branch of pseudoscience, had its most recent reappearance in the 1970's, but has never been scientifically proven to be valid. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biorhythmhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aromatic
In psychology, this means the equipment or measures that are necessary for conducting research.

Apparatus can refer to any equipment used in an experiment such as cages, machines, computers, heart rate monitors, or brain imaging machines. Typically any equipment or tools used in a study are listed in the methods section of a research paper under the subheading "Apparatus and Materials." An alternate usage can refer to a human organization such as a political structure referring to the people and procedures that are necessary to run an organization. In biology, apparatus can refer to a system of structures that perform a particular function together, for example the Golgi apparatus. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Appartushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Annual+Cyclehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reinstatementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychobiological+Research
An example of this could be an engineer mentally visualizing a machine or device that is needed to solve a problem. Imagine the Wright Brothers visualizing what was needed to invent a flying machine and trying to merge the physics of flight with the mechanics of a machine - this was a conceptualization of their idea. Another fascinating example are the concept designs made by Da Vinci centuries ago that devised weapon systems that the technology of the time couldn't yet use.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conceptualization
For example: "The other dinner party attendees found the man's caustic humor to be off-putting and inappropriate." ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Caustichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bourgeoisie
There are 4 differing blood groups which determined by the presence or absence of two antigens (A and B) on the red blood cells: Blood group A (A antigen on red cells, B antibody in plasma), group B (B antigen on red cells, A antibody in the plasma), group AB (A and B antigens on red cells but neither A nor B antibody in plasma), and group O (neither A nor B antigens on red cells, A and B antibody are in plasma).

So in addition to the A and B antigens, the third antigen is called the Rh factor -- is either present or absent and is referred to as either positive (+) or negative (-). This, along with blood groups, determine what blood type a person is. Typically, Rh negative blood is only given to Rh-negative patients while Rh positive blood or Rh negative blood may be given to Rh positive patients. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blood+Typesmodes, show different pattern spreads.

In statistics, data, such as grades or IQs, are calculated with a single mean or mode that will produce a single point spread (hyperlink?), usually resembling a bell/normal curve. However, when calculating the same data using the other mean or mode will produce a different point spread with a different bell curve. This information is not commonly used except in high level research.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bimodalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bigotryandrogyny and someone who is androgynous has both male and female characteristics - this is not to say specifically that the person has male and female genitalia, but that the person exhibits behaviors, emotions, or traits that are considered to be masculine or feminine.

Essentially an androgynous person is a mix of maleness and femaleness. It is actually often considered advantageous to be behaviorally androgynous and have both traditionally masculine and feminine traits - this leads to greater adaptability.

For example, imagine a father whose wife passes way leaving him with three young daughters. He would be better able to adapt to this situation if he had some traditionally 'feminine' traits such as emotionality along with cooking/cleaning skills. Concepts of androgyny evolve over time in that societal perceptions of what is considered masculine and feminine change. For example, 200 years ago it was considered uncommon for a woman to have a job. Now it is commonplace and a woman having a job isn't considered androgynous.

This can also describe physical androgyny such as individuals who look both masculine and feminine (think David Bowie) or individuals who are intersexed or are "hermaphrodites" (hyperlink?) which is considered outdated terminology at this point. Intersexed means there is a human or animal birth in which the organism has sexual organs for both genders. In humans this is often treated by surgical intervention. Sometimes surgeries occur before it is certain which sex the infant will develop into leading to situations where the "wrong" sex was chosen and children feeling as if they are the wrong biological sex. It is recommended now to delay surgical interventions for intersexed infants until it is more clear which biological sex is predominant. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Androgynous
An example would be the statement "football is typically considered a very androcentric sport" as it is played mostly by men and men make up a majority of the fanbase. Androcentric societies promote androcentrism - which is the conscious or unconscious promotion of a masculine point of view at the cultural center of society including history, culture, rights, and societal frameworks. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Androcentric
For instance, the football player was so aggressive in the game that he frightened some members of the opposing team. There are many identified sources of aggression; instrumental, frustration, retaliation, expressor, relational, progressive, impulsive, reactive and hostile. Each of these has its own triggers and its own reason for existing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aggressive
Acquired distinctiveness can also refer to a learned differentiation or ability to discriminate between qualities or traits that were initially indistinguishable. An example would be learning about wine-tasting and learning what differentiates the qualities of wines - before this skill was learned the person would be unable to discriminate between different types of wine. Acquired distinctiveness allows them to be able to distinguish between the wines. The opposing concept of this is acquired similarityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquired+Distinctivenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bureaucracyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Androgogyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adventitiousadaptation ability. This is being able to change in order to be successful when circumstances in the surrounding environment change. This includes the ability to be able to handle new climates, diets, expectations, resources, and challenges. While humans and some species (such as coyotes and ravens) are highly adaptable, many species are quite limited in their ability to adapt and survive in a new environment.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptability
For example. learning to fly a plane means acquiring a great deal of knowledge about mechanics, physics, meteorology, etc. AIDS is an acronym for Acquired Immunity Deficiency Syndrome. In behaviorism acquired can refer to acquisition (the first step in the learning or conditioning process). After conditioning occurs the organism can be said to have acquired the response. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquired
These adjustments may take some time but eventually they become more comfortable in their new environment. For example, when traveling to a higher altitude a person may experience altitude sickness which occurs as a reaction to lower air pressure and lower oxygen levels in the air. They must take time to acclimate to the environment which usually takes a day or two but sometimes longer. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acclimation
An example is absolute zero which indicates the point at which molecular movement completely ceases and the lowest possible temperature where nothing can be any colder (no heat energy exists). Absolute acuity refers to the lowest point at which a stimulus can be recognized such as the lowest level of light that can be perceived by an individual. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute
For example, researchers may flash a series of numbers on a screen and milliseconds later follow it up with a series of shapes and lines. Because the second image is 'masking' the first the subject will not be able to recall the first stimulus--the series of numbers. Backward masking is used in techniques such as subliminal messaging. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Backward+Maskingaxon terminal regarding the amount of the neurotransmitter that has been released.

Autoreceptors are located in membranes that exist in presynaptic neuron terminals. An autoreceptor is only sensitive to the specific neurotransmitter or hormone that is released by the neuron in the presynaptic membrane in which the autoreceptor sits. They also control some internal cell processes such as synthesis and the release of neurotransmitters. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autoreceptor
This hypothesis proposes that competition effects are evident during the time of the performance or test and NOT during the actual learning phase. This means that while undergoing conditioning the organism acquires not only the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) associations but also a contextual/environmental and US association -- during a test a response to a CS will only occur if the association between the CS-US is stronger than the contextual-US pairing. The comparator hypothesis allowed for explanations and modifications for other behaviorist models such as the Rescorla-Wagner model. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Comparator+Hypothesis
For instance, we are all having a subjective experience whenever we are experiencing pain. Although we as an individual can identify and feel the specific components of the pain no one else can fully measure or feel our own subjective experience of pain. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subjective+Experience
This can be a difficult journey for many people because we humans have the tendency to lie to and delude ourselves. Many also tend to have an aversion to introspection due to cultural or social stigma. However, self-knowledge is one of the main goals of psychotherapy, introspective reflection, and meditation. It also encompasses the practice of mindfulness which is the effort to try to be fully aware and "own" one's own thoughts and actions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Knowledge
The eyes receive visual information which leaves the retina via the optic nerve and travels to a specific part of the thalamus -- the lateral geniculate nucleus. The primary visual cortex receives the visual radiation information that is sent to by the lateral geniculate nucleus. The primary visual cortex is believed to also be involved in subsequent steps of visual information processing. More simply, the eye takes in the visual information which is then processed by the structures of the primary visual cortex. This information is then encoded and comprehended by the mind as a series of pictures.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+Visual+Cortex
Typically this occurs when performance of a task improves as a result of performing a different but related task. It is essentially using the building blocks of previous to knowledge to learn more -- by learning something similar but different you can strengthen your previous skills as well.

For instance, this is what happens when a person continues to study and learn more about a subject. Once a person has a basic knowledge of a subject it is not difficult to add more knowledge of that subject. For instance, once a child starts to learn math every school year they learn different but similar concepts as time goes on. As they gain new knowledge and skills their original math skills typically become stronger than they were initially. Think about it, by the time people begin to learn algebra and geometry basic addition and subtraction seem a lot easier!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Transferbehaviorism, conditioned inhibition is an internal state that has been behaviorally learned by an organism that prevents it from responding to stimuli that they typically would respond to -- for example, not salivating when exposed to food. This type of inhibition can be conditioned into an organism through the use of punishers (i.e. electric shocks) or lack of reinforcers.

This is part of the spectrum of conditioned and unconditioned responses (CR and UR) proposed by Pavlov.

There are four types of conditioned inhibition: extinction, disinhibition, differential inhibition, and delayed inhibition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioned+Inhibition
For example, you are listening to your favorite radio station at the beginning of a road trip. As you travel farther your signal keeps getting weaker until it becomes nothing but static. This is the result of signal absorbance.

In chemistry, absorbance is a measure of the amount of light that is absorbed as it passes through a substance/sample. Typically wavelengths of the light are measured. In biological studies absorbance is used to measure bacterial growth in suspension cultures. Measurements are often referenced as 'Absorbance Units' or AUs. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absorbance
For example, a sociologist is sampling attitudes toward higher education in an specific population of 10,000 people. It isn't realistic to consider polling each member of the population so the researcher selects a sample group that hopefully represents the views of the population. If they went out to the community and talked to a mere 5 people randomly it is unlikely that that small a sample would yield a realistic answer - this would be insensitivity to sample size. Assessing the views of 200 people would yield a much more realistic sampling and be more representative of the population.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Insensitivity+To+Sample+Size
For example, this can occur when someone like a teacher or social worker looks at a client history and believes that they know for certain how a case is going to play out in the long run or how well a student will do in a course. However, people are resourceful or events can take unexpected twists and turns; the end may turn out totally different than predicted.

As an example, a teacher looks at a student's stellar behavioral record and previous good grades and predict they will have no issues with the student and they will easily get an A in the class. What the teacher doesn't know is the child's parents are divorcing and having a rough time - this may cause the student to have behavioral problems and their grades to slip. The illusion of validity caused the teacher to make a prediction that in the end did not come true. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusion+Of+Validity
This has been documented with studies using the "Marshmallow Test." This is performed with young children offering them a choice: they can have one marshmallow immediately or wait over a longer time period to receive two marshmallows. This is performed by placing a marshmallow within arm's length of the child with a promise of receiving an additional marshmallow if they will refrain from eating the available treat for a brief time period. Almost universally the children opted for the single marshmallow sooner, rather than two later.

Hyperbolic discounting is also evident in adult with money - people are more likely to take a smaller amount of money immediately rather than wait for a larger amount at a later date. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperbolic+Discounting
This term was coined from the frequently held belief in basketball that a person who makes a shot will be more likely to make shots afterwards - they have "hot hands." For instance, a person playing basketball makes a successful shot. It is frequently assumed that one "lucky" shot leads to many more good shots and they are more likely to make a shot if they made the shot previous to it. Several proposed causes of this fallacy it the tendency to look to patterns or 'streaks' and the underestimation of streaks in chance situations.

For instance, if you toss a coin 10 times in a row there is a fair likelihood that you will have a few of the same side consecutively - we expect chance things to alternate more than they do. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hot-Hand+Fallacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hard-Easy+Effect
For instance, in business many times a decision is made be a committee. It is easy for others affected by such a decision to assume that all members of the committee were in favor and supportive of the decision when only a majority of the committee was needed to approve a decision. Frequently in group decision making situations group dynamics (such as conformity) can influence decision making and cause individual preferences to be downplayed or ignored in order to maintain group cohesion. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+Attribution+Error
This is also known colloquially as "digital amnesia."

This appears to be a side effect of people knowing that information is readily available or will be readily accessible in the future. Research on this topic is in its infancy but studies suggest that when participants are exposed to difficult questions they are primed to focus on computers and their access to information. When the participants believe that they will have future access to the information they have lower rates of recall of the information - but higher rates of recall for where to access the information. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Google+Effect
A common example of this is the use of manipulatives and problems that require critical thinking in teaching and learning math as opposed to learning only to memorize addition/subtraction/multiplication/division tables.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Generation+Effect
For example, a famous study asked participants from California and the Midwest to rate how much more happy the California residents were than the Midwestern residents. Borth the Californians and the Midwesteners rated Californians to be more happy. But actually happiness ratings showed no significant difference between the happiness ratings of either place. The focusing effect is at play here - by over-emphasizing the obvious factors that might make California residents be more happy (great weather, things to do, etc.) the participants ignored the less salient factors that would decrease the happiness levels of Californians (cost of living, earthquakes, pollution, etc). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Focusing+Effect
An example might be a worker thinking "I'm working overtime because I am dedicated to my job but my co-workers are just doing it for the overtime." This attribution may be true or it might be false, but the extrinsic incentive bias is highlighted by attributing external incentive motivations for others while attributing internal incentive motivations for themselves.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extrinsic+Incentive+Bias
For instance, someone is trying to buy a house. They may have reached a point where they are trying to decide between two similar houses and are comparing some details such as a master bathroom with a sunken tub as opposed to one with a walk-in shower stall. While these two details would seem trivial early in a house search, they could make or break a later stage of the purchase decision.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Distinction+Bias
The researchers study showed that people dislike losing MORE than they like winning. So they are 'winning' by selling stocks that have increased in value but will hang on to stock that is decreasing in value - they would be 'losing' if they sold at a loss. It is a sort of profit-taking mentality and may be part of what causes gamblers to keep gambling until they have lost everything while pursuing the "big win."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disposition+Effect
Sometimes when confronted with information that threatens our perceptions of safety defensive attributions are sometimes made in order to ease the psychological discomfort that occurs when we are afraid something will happen. Similarities with the victim influence defensive attributions - by assigning attributions to others we make their situations seem controllable and therefore unlikely to happen to us.

For instance, if you hear about a person getting mugged in your neighborhood this may make you feel initially afraid for you safety because you walk the same streets as the victim. If you used defensive attributions in this circumstance you might start thinking things such as: "Well, that person was walking by themselves, I never do that" or "That person was crazy to walk at night, I'm not that dumb." Even though you may do these same things by assigning attributional responsibility to the victim you are decreasing the negative feelings you are experiencing by thinking you might end up being a victim too. They are responsible for what happened to them due to their actions, therefore you are unlikely to experience the negative thing the victim experienced. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defensive+Attribution+Hypothesis
An example might be going to the mall and shopping for necessities and then "falling in love" with a beautiful outfit that you just have to have--it's a great color and it fits wonderfully. Later on then you rationalize that "I needed it for that party that I'm going to, the price was so reasonable, I will wear it for years,etc. to assuage the guilt that might be felt over the impulsive purchase.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Choice-Supportive+Bias
An example of this might be loaning tools to a neighbor who has borrowed from you before, while a co-worker's approach for a loan of a tool might be rejected even though they have done favors for you in the past.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ben+Franklin+Effect
For instance, if a person is having recurrent thoughts about sex, their conversations and speech may be laced with sexual innuendos and double entendres. Likewise, if a person's mindset is concentrated on academics or business they may be constantly making comparisons with or allusions to their studies or business dealings. Information consistent with a person's interests or beliefs is more salient and noticeable than information that is not. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attentional+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Objective+Introspectioinfixed-interval schedules in which reinforcements are available at a fixed, specific time.

They are called this because when the data is graphed it has a curve, scallop shaped appearance.

For example, a fixed-interval schedule would be making food available (a reinforcement) to a mouse who hits a lever after every five minutes. So no matter how many times the mouse hits a lever before the five minute mark, the mouse will only receive reinforcement after the interval of time (five minutes) has passed. A scalloped response pattern results from this in that after the reinforcement happens the responses of the mouse (hitting the lever) cease then slowly start up again. As the time nears the five minute mark the responses increase in frequency because the organism knows reinforcement time is nearing.

***Here is a wiki image of the patterns that will help drive the concept home -http://elearningwiki.com/images/d/da/ReinforcSched.png]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behaviorism+Concepthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organizational+Perspective
This is why prescription medications sometimes need to be changed or adjusted as time goes by.

A person can easily build up a tolerance to recreational drugs requiring greater doses over time to approximate the original experience. This can lead to overdosing and death. Some substances are addictive and become necessary for 'normal' body functions requiring medical intervention for safe withdrawal.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Metabolic+Tolerancefixed action pattern.

Referred to as instinctive behaviors, it is a behavior common to a species that helps to ensure the species' survival. This is most commonly seen in courtship/mating and nesting behaviors (many bird species have species-specific courtship rituals and ways of building nests and tending to eggs).

For instance, different species have radically different nest-building techniques that they simply know instinctively and don't have to learn from others in their species group. Likewise, some species (i.e. cowbirds) instinctively lay their eggs in other birds' nests and save themselves the effort of raising their own chicks. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Innate+Releasing+Mechanism
For example, flat effect is a psychiatric symptom in which individuals have no displayed emotions whatsoever. Depressed affect is a mental and physical state that frequently occurs among persons who feel trapped in their emotional or physical condition.

Examples include prisoners, abuse victims, or isolated individuals (such as a submarine crew) - it is believed the lack of stimulation is linked to depressed affect. This causes the person to shift into a mental and physical state of neutrality that can extend to extreme apathy and disregard for normal tasks such as eating/caring for oneself, etc. In its most extreme form it can actually lead to the death of the victim. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depressed+Affectbehaviorism, excitatory conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) has a positive relationship with the unconditioned stimulus (US)--essentially the CS eventually predicts the occurrence of the US. In this circumstance the CS begins to elicit the behaviors associated with the US.

This is considered the most common type of conditioning and is considered easier than conditioned inhibition.

Examples of excitatory conditioning include fear conditioning and taste aversion (also known as the Garcia Effect). This is when after eating or drinking something that makes us sick we no longer want to eat/drink that substance and even the thought of it makes us ill. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Excitatory+Conditioningwithdrawal from an addictive substance. This phase is where the patient's body and mind are experiencing the loss of the addictive substance. Sometimes physical symptoms are the most extreme in this stage. This can be a dangerous and sometimes fatal process that may require medical supervision such as in alcohol and opiate addiction. Once the task of physical withdrawal is successfully completed, mental and emotional healing can commence.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basic+Withdrawalsystematic desensitization, anxiety hierarchies are representations of situations that create anxiety. Typically these are images, videos, or other artificial representations of fearful stimuli that illustrate the people, actions, or situations that create the negative, phobic feelings.

Once these feelings (and their sources) can be visualized and recognized by the client they can be more easily dealt with. It is an increasing hierarchy with less stressful stimuli being presented initially and increasing in intensity until the client is dealing with the real deal.

An example of an anxiety hierarchy in systematic desensitization could be seen when treating a client for a debilitating fear of spiders. First the client might be shown a photograph of a spider at a distance. Once they are comfortable with viewing the image then they may move on to holding the picture. After this then perhaps they will watch some videos of spiders--once this is not stressful they may be presented with a fake rubber spider. After they are comfortable holding this fake spider then the behaviorist may move on to having the client in the same room as a real spider in a cage. once they are comfortable with this then they will move on to the spider being held by someone else outside of the cage. If the client moves up this anxiety hierarchy of increasingly fearful stimuli then eventually the client would hold the real spider themselves. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxiety+Hierarchy
Typically the earlier the treatment occurs, the less obvious the symptoms will appear. Left untreated, acromegaly can lead to premature death due to added stress on the internal organs. Traditionally, before treatment was available, some people with this ailment became circus performers or side-show features.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acromegalyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accuracy+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acyrologiaphobiac
For instance, when studying research data it is normal to search for patterns. However, how relevant and accurate a seeming "pattern" really is is frequently a function of how large the original population sample size was. For instance, if you are looking for the prevalence of schizophrenia in a specific ethnic population it would be more reliable to look at a population sampling of a few thousand individuals than a population of two dozen. If you only sampled two dozen individuals and observed six individuals with schizophrenia you may conclude that a whopping 25% of the population has schizophrenia - this would be a clustering illusion. Whereas if you sampled thousands of individuals the true, typical 1% percentage of schizophrenia would, as is common to most human populations, most likely emerge. The larger population sample makes it easier to extrapolate accurate numbers than a small population sample.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clustering+Illusion
For example a doctor can use a lot of long technical words to describe straightforward ailments such as a broken arm or leg. These long words will contain information about the name of the bone, the location, the severity of the break, the type of fracture, etc. (all things that are necessary for documentation and treatment for the doctor) but more than the average layman needs to know.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Curse+Of+Knowledge
For instance, you go to a restaurant and have a horrible experience - your food tasted awful, your service was bad, etc. The courtesy bias would occur if, when asked by the manager how your experience was, you didn't want to cause the kitchen/server any trouble with their boss and responded that everything was wonderful. In order to be positive and polite your true feelings about the experience are not expressed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Courtesy+Bias
For instance, the ambient light in your living might normally seem quite bright however if someone takes a photo of you with a bright camera flash or exposes some other type of extremely bright light source, all of a sudden that same ambient light will seem dim by comparison. The contrast between the varying levels of light make the formerly bright living room light seem quite dim as you were exposed to a much brighter light stimulus. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contrast+Effect
Examples of such falsehoods include dubious claims by advertisers or politicians or "old wive's tales" (like how going outside with wet hair causes colds or how eating candy causes acne). These false claims, once heard, can continue to influence thoughts and feelings long after they have been proven false. Modern day examples include the belief that the Great Wall of China can be seen from the moon (it can't!) or that cats can kill babies by sucking out their breath (they can't!). Once pieces of information like this are internalized it isn't easily forgotten, no matter how untrue and disproven the beliefs are.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Continued+Influence+Effect
A simple example of this could be an experiment with dropping objects of different weights. Under laboratory circumstances these experiments would yield the same results every time but if performed outside wind or other factors could interfere with the rate at which an object falls and generate different results. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Congruence+Bias
In our modern world many decisions are made by computer programs rather than by humans. Therefore, since humans do not think like computers and use human criteria they will make "errors" (or decisions that are not the same as a computer) or miss errors the automated programs commit.

An example of automation bias would be an incorrect word substitution in an article by an autocorrection that a human editor misses because they relied on the automated program to catch any mistakes. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automation+Bias
As an example, companies often use celebrities as spokespeople knowing that the audience will recognize this individual and give greater credence to what they have to say than an unknown individual. So think twice when you see an actor endorsing dog food and remember that he is not a scientist, a nutritionist, or a dog expert---he is a paid spokesman. This is also why in many advertisements for health treatments someone in a lab coat is promoting or encouraging the treatment - people view someone in a lab coat as being an authority and knowing what is right. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Authority+Bias
In-group bias can also be seen in artificial laboratory settings - when participants are randomly separated into arbitrary groups they are more likely to support and help members of their own group over members of the other groups. Membership in groups can change over time so in-group bias can often be witnessed as having an 'ebb and flow' nature.

An example would be in an election. Early on, members within one political party typically argue with each other and split into factions supporting different candidates within the same party. They can exhibit stereotypical thinking and negative behaviors towards the other group. But over time, after one candidate is selected to run, typically the members of the party fuse back into one group who supports their party's candidate and their in-group bias shifts towards the opposing party's candidate. Some theories that explain in-group bias include the Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT), which posits conflict over shared resources is what fosters in-group bias, and Social Identity Theory, which proposes creation of distinct individual identities along with a cultural identity increases the likelihood of this bias. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=In-Group+Bias
For instance, a woman might look at a photo of a football team and believe that this is an incredibly handsome group of men. However, show her the same individuals as single photos and she will more likely to see their physical flaws and rate them as less attractive. Research is being conducted as to why this phenomenon seems to occur. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cheerleader+Effect
For instance, many children (and adults) are able to learn and remember a lot of information about dinosaurs while having difficulty remembering much about academic information that they consider boring. Another example would be recalling different days of your daily commute.

For example, you would be much more likely to recall the specific day that you saw a fender bender involving clown cars on the side of the road (something very unusual or bizarre) rather than the days where nothing unusual or bizarre happened. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bizarreness+Effect
For instance, it is easy to see a friend being influenced by a politician or religious leader that you do not support. However, a bias blind spot would make it to where you are less likely or unable to identify similar influences from a politician or religious leader that you support. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bias+Blind+Spot
For some people this is counterintuitive (a surprising or unexpected) result. This is why it is called a "paradox." It is considered a complicating factor when performing a statistical test of proportion.

For example, in middle school height may appear to be positively correlated with proficiency level at math - taller students are able to complete more complex math problems. However this isn't a true statistical relationships in that middle school aged taller students are better at math simple because they are older. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Berkson%27s+Paradox+%28Berkson%27s+Bias%29
For instance, in social media one person might express a controversial opinion or false idea and other people will present their evidence and express opinions that are totally opposite and contradictory to the original statement. Under these circumstances, all parties will impart information that they believe supports their opinions because cognitive biases such as this are making them uninterested in changing their mind. The individuals involved, instead of changing their minds or opinions, will instead have their original beliefs strengthened by these arguments. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Backfire+Effect
These inventories are as effective only as far as the client is honest and truthful when filling it out. Oftentimes, with standardized tests instruments, questions will be repeated in altered forms to act as truthfulness checks.

An example would be an item that asks the individual "I frequently want to hurt myself" (yes/no) and then later on in the inventory asks "I never think about suicide" (yes/no). There are no way that a client can answer both of these questions "yes" or "no." If one is positive, the other has to be negative. Contradictory items such as these can 'catch' someone who is being dishonest or filling out the self-report measure at random.

Examples of self-report inventories include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Beck Depression Inventory. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Report+Inventories
The greater the surprise the stronger the learned association. One example of this is the act of teaching a puppy to sit. First you say "sit" to the dog (unconditioned stimulus) and push its hindquarters into the sitting position. You then give the puppy a food reward. After a few repeats of this the puppy will associate the word 'sit' with sitting down and getting a treat. Shortly you will not have to physically position the puppy, it will understand the combination of food and "sit" and do it voluntarily. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rescorla%96Wagner+%28R-W%29+Model+Of+Classical+Conditioning
These programs most often tend to be popular for a year or two and then disappear when the next fad program appears. These types of programs appear to work in the short-term, but generally do not produce long-term solutions to personal problems. Pseudo-psychologies are not based on empirical research or held up to scientific research standards. Oftentimes these programs appear to work within the context of seminars and retreats where everyone is working together on the same things and an initial perception of effectiveness takes hold but many times these practices work less well in the real world.

Some recent movements from the last few decades that made a big splash but then retreated into obscurity have been EST, Eckankar, Silva Mind Control, Transcendental Meditation, etc. These schools of thought still exist but are only practiced by a much reduced number of adherents.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pseudo-Psychology%2FPseudopsychology
What this means is that humans are by nature gregarious, or social beings, but although they are designed to operate in group situations each experiences the world and relationships uniquely as an individual. A basic human example of intersubjectivity is having a shared, common agreement in the definition of an object. So most people would experience intersubjectivity when asked to picture an apple- the definition of an apple would be the same. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=IntersubjectivitySigmund Freud, posits that aggression is an innate biological drive that is in the same category as the drives that are related to sex or hunger.

They are instinctual and automatic, we are born with these drives and must adapt as a means to control them. Aggression is used as a means of maintaining and defending territory: basically as a means of survival both in humans and in animals. Human society regards these traits as elements that need to be controlled and channeled for the good of society so that we don't descend into animalistic chaos. One controversial hypothesis suggests that sports serve as an outlet for these drives.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Instinct+Theory+Of+Aggression
For instance, the anger or fear (adrenaline action) that might be felt while watching one part of a movie can stimulate the sense of relief that is felt when the situation resolves itself.

An example of this could be seen in this movie from the '50s about a giant genetically-engineered tarantula that victimizes a town and its citizens, killing several of them. Later on in the film, the tarantula is incinerated by a bomb thereby saving the town. The ultimate sigh of relief from the audience was based on the combination of tension created by the tarantula's growth and aggression, followed by the relief at the violent death of this creature and a return to safety. This excitation-transfer formula is a standard formula for maintaining tension in horror movies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Excitation-Transfer+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioned+Suppression
Although behavioral repertoires are intended to be complete and exhaustive sometimes particular behaviors are hidden (deliberately or inadvertently) from the observer. Sometimes behavioral repertoires are used to reference the behaviors that an individual has exhibited in the past. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Repertoire
Developed in the 1960s by Aaron Beck, the BDI consists of 21 multiple choice questions that are related to common thoughts and behavior patterns of depressed individuals. It is one of the most widely used psychometric self-report inventories used to this day. The BDI addresses both the affective (feeling sad) and physical (loss of appetite) symptoms of depression.

Like most self-report measures, the BDI results can be affected by the client/patient minimizing or exaggerating symptoms so this is typically not used as an official diagnosis tool rather than as a means to explore if an individual may be experiencing depressive symptoms and need further treatment. It can also be used periodically through treatment to measure progress (or lack thereof).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beck+Depression+Inventory+%28BDI%29
For instance, you are out camping and try to build a fire. If you have done this before it's easy to light some kindling and let the fire start which you follow by adding small pieces of wood followed by larger pieces of wood. This process would not come so easily if your only knowledge of fire-building was a description in a book in which you might have to use trial and error before you are successful in your endeavor of building a fire.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquaintance+Knowledgehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achilles+Tendonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Arcrasia
An example of this is a dog that seems perfectly friendly until someone makes a move that it interprets as threatening (think someone attacking its owner). It will then attack the person who made the "threatening" gesture. Reactive aggression is "justified" aggression. This is the opposite of proactive aggression which occurs when there is an aggressive reaction with little or no provocation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reactive+Aggressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proactive+Aggression
For example, you have a friend who is VERY loud in most settings whether it is a sports game or chatting with a few friends. If you decide not to invite this friend to an event that requires being very quiet (a serious movie, meditation event, yoga class, etc) because you feel they would be very loud you would be using a dispositional attribution. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schematic+Model+Of+Dispositional+Attributionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cohabitation
According to stimulus substitution theory, after pairing the new stimulus with the existing conditioned stimulus it is possible to replace the first CS with the new stimulus. For instance, you have conditioned a rat to respond to a whistle as a signal that it is about to be fed. Then you add a flashing light to the whistle as a signal. After a few training situations you would be able to dispense with the whistle and just use the lights to signal that it is time to eat. You have substituted the light stimulus for the whistle stimulus. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulus+Substitutionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tropismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lamarckismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unanimity
These two hemispheres, the left and the right, are capable of working independently as having been proven by procedures in which it was necessary to physically sever the corpus callosum and separate the two halves. Hemispheric specialization refers to which specific cognitive functions are controlled by which hemisphere of the brain.

For example, the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for language functions such as production of speech and language comprehension. The right hemisphere has more visual-spatial functions. Hemispheric specialization is the basis of the "right-brain, left brain" personality differentiation that is popularly referred to in "pop" psychology (which is not a scientifically valid concept). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Human+Brain
For instance. if a pharmaceutical company is testing a new medication they would select two groups using the same criteria for eligibility (similar age, background, health, etc.) and would give one group the medication and then give the control group a placebo as a means of testing the efficacy of the medication. The group receiving the real medication would be the experimental group. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimental+Grouphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=David+Hubelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chameleon+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Miserhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bloodlettinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary+Analysishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Construal+Level+Theory+%28CLT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fixed+Action+Pattern+%28FAP%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychoeducationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interpersonal+Psychotherapy+%28IPT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+Working+ModelJohn B. Watson and Rosalie Raynor that demonstrated the generalization of learning experiences in children. This study was among the first studies that showed that fear responses could be learned and generalized to similar objects. In this experiment (that would now be considered unethical) Little Albert was presented and allowed to play with a toy white rat. While he was handling the white rat one of the researchers would create a loud, fearful noise that would startle Little Albert and cause him to have a fear response. After multiple pairings with the rat and the scary noise eventually Little Albert would start crying when he saw the white rat without hearing the scary noise. This paired association and fear response was one of the first truly groundbreaking studies for behaviorists. Through more trials the fear reaction to the white rat was transferred to other fuzzy white objects including stuffed rabbits and santa claus masks. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Little+Albert+ExperimentJohn B. Watson of Johns Hopkins University. Educated at Vassar College and Johns Hopkins University she was the author of many papers on child development and familial bonds, both alone and in conjunction with her husband. She is best remembered for her participation in the "Little Albert" experiments that demonstrated the generalization of learning experiences in children. This experiment (that would now be considered unethical) showed that when a child learns fear of one object that that same learning can be transferred to other similar objects. Little Albert was conditioned to fear a toy white rat and later transferred that fear reaction to other fuzzy white objects including rabbits and santa claus masks. This study was among the first empirical studies that showed that fear responses could be learned and generalized to similar objects. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rosalie+Raynorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Naturalistic+Intelligence
Furthermore, the depth of processing predicts how long the memory trace will remain. Depth refers to the attention, focus, elaboration, and emphasis on a particular memory. For example. with the business of an average person's day we are constantly bombarded with information (casual conversation, instructions, news, etc) but very little of this information is processed very deeply and therefore is recalled only in very general (or even vague) form. However, important information (relationships, salient work details, emotional events, etc.) require deeper processing which leads to more specific and detailed memories.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Processing+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Volunteer+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Respondent+Extinctionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acetysalicylic+Acid
For example, if you weigh your dog on a scale and the scale says 30 pounds but you know definitively your dog weighs 27 pounds the scale has an absolute error of 3 pounds (30-27=3). Absolute error is akin to the concept of absolute value that we learned in algebra: the positive number of difference between two values (positive or negative). I.e. |+2| + |-2| = 4. The mean absolute error (MAE) measures the difference between two continuous variables. This means the measurement of differences (if any) between two variables when measured across a distance (time or physical). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Errorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acetyl
An example would be a coworker who brags about their career in professional sports and all of the influential people they know but has actually has no past sports career or influential friends. Compulsive lying is not well understood and it is frequently unclear as to whether these types of liars are just trying to build up their image or if they actually believe the things they are saying. People who constantly fabulate have difficulty in relationships with others because they appear so untrustworthy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fabulationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Folkwayshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Qualitative+Variable
An example of this is the Appalachian dialect of English that is found in the Appalachian/Blue Ridge mountain area of the U.S. as opposed to the standard American English that is taught and used in most of the rest of the country. This dialect is readily noticeable through the use of non-standard grammar and archaic vocabulary that more closely resembles Shakespearean English than modern day American English.. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acrolecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achromatichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic+Confusion
An example of intermodal perception would be being able to see, taste, smell, feel, and hear yourself taking a big bite out of an apple. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intermodal+PerceptionCarl Jung (1875-1961) from French psychologist and neurologist Pierre Janet (1859–1947) and describes a reduction in a patient's state of consciousness. This is accompanied by a reduction in inhibitions and a relaxation of personal restraints. This state is much like hypnosis but is generally reached spontaneously, but can be encouraged by a hypnotist or other trained professional.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abaissment+De+Niveau+Mentalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Comprehension+Monitoring
This trait is widely seen in Asian cultures such as Chinese and Japanese societies. In this type of cultural setting, an individuals are expected to subsume and absorb themselves into the group culture. Success in a venture is ascribed to external factors (luck, group effort, etc.)and failure is blamed on internal factors caused by the individual (lack of sufficient effort, bad luck, etc.). Self-effacing bias is the opposite concept of the self-serving bias in which success is attributed to internal reasons (I am smart, I am talented) whereas negative events are ascribed to external factors (The test was too hard, the teacher hates me). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Effacing+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Case+Formulation
When children first start using language they will use single words to indicate their needs or wants. These are called holophrases. This is followed by short sentences. At this point language use is very concrete and straightforward. Starting about age 3 language use starts to become more sophisticated with a child starting to seek information and ask questions rather than making statements. For instance, when a child changes from saying "Want blanket" to "Where is my blanket?"]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Syntax+Speechhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vocabulary+Spurt
The TRA was proposed by Ajzen and Martin Fishbein in 1967 in an attempt to explain the relationship between attitudes and behavior in human activity. TRA is used to predict how an individual will behave based on their behavioral intentions and attitudes. The intersection of these these two constructs is that they together can be used to predict how someone will behave - it depends on the on the desired outcome that results from performing a particular behavior.

As an example, someone may decide and plan to steal something with the knowledge that they can sell or pawn the stolen item for money. The main focus of the TPB is behavioral intent which is influenced by the attitude about behavioral likelihood - attitudes about whether the behavior will have the predicted outcome and judging the pros and cons of that outcome. The TPB states that behavioral results depends on both motivation and ability. The TPB is used to not only explain but also predict health behaviors such as smoking, drinking, substance use, and healthcare visits. This theory proposes there are six factors that influence an individual's actual control over their behavior: behavioral intention, subjective norms, social norms, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and perceived power. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+Of+Planned+Behavior+%28TPB%29.

Two conditioned stimuli are paired together then one of them is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). This causes the other, non-paired conditioned stimulus to be able to elicit a response when it is paired with the US. For example, you condition an animal to associate a whistle and a bell together.

You then condition the animal to pair the bell with food which causes salivation. Sensory pre-conditioning occurs when the whistle causes salivation even though the animal wasn't specifically conditioned to have that response. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Pre-Conditioning and personal beliefs. Typically individuals with high levels of prejudice are aware of it and endorse it while those with low levels of prejudice are aware of it but don't endorse it.

This model suggests that stereotypes are a 'default' response for both high and low prejudice groups. Research has shown that when confronted with stereotypes automatic processing occurs and both the high and low prejudiced groups have the same initial reaction. But, after time, the low prejudice individuals suppress the stereotype using controlled processes and don't endorse it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dissociation+Model+Of+Prejudicebasal ganglia
The nucleus accumbens is a major component of the brain's "reward circuit."

For this reason it constitutes a major factor in the development of drug dependency because the regions of the brain that are involved the feelings of pleasure and reward are the areas that are most affected by drugs.

Dopamine is associated with the reward circuit and the nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens acts as a liaison between the limbic system (seat of the emotions) and the central grey nuclei that are useful in planning movements and for reasoning processes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accumbensvisual acuity at high light levels, such as normal daylight.

This condition is caused by a recessive gene that is carried on the X chromosome and affects men more often than it does women. This syndrome also exists in partial form (trouble seeing specific colors such as in red-green color blindness) and is referred to dyschromatomia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achromatopsia
This theory concentrates on "how" individuals become criminals without addressing "why" they do and is the most discussed of all the learning theories connected to deviance. This theory places emphasis on the social and learning aspects of learning deviant and criminal behaviors. Sutherland proposed that criminal behaviors were learned through communication of groups who shared attitudes, rationalizations, and methods for criminality. This theory suggests that areas with higher crime rates still have a social structure but that it is differential in that it doesn't correspond with what is considered legal. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Differential+Association+Theory
These steps are taken in order to focus on comprehension of material read. Unfortunately, there is a sizable population of grade school students who don't comprehend written material beyond the "decoding" stage - that is to say that they can pronounce the words but don't process the actual meaning of the words and sentences. The SQ3R methods try to remediate this by teaching the student to question and review the text in order to understand the meaning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SQ3R
For example, an intelligence test that uses questions specific to a cultural canon and language would be inaccurate if given to someone in another culture who had no experience with the culture that made the test. Using culture-free tests can help eliminate bias in testing and result in more valid test results. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Culture-Free+Test
For instance, the treatment of schizophrenia by using a biological approach would be treating the lesions and deterioration of the brain rather than by taking a psychological approach to treatment by using only psychotherapy. In many instances the biological approach can be used in conjunction with other approaches for a more effective treatment. For example, using the previous treatment options for schizophrenia described above together as a joint approach to treatment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biological+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Filler+Questionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Acuityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absence
One example of this would be a sports team where one player "seeks the spotlight" at the expense of his/her teammates and perhaps to the detriment of the entire team. Hypothetical social dilemmas are often used in research or discussion such as the Prisoner's Dilemma. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Dilemmahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Media+Contenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abderitehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moresbrain which is responsible for cognitive control. A simple example of this could be that while driving you have to consider the best route to your destination. In this you have to consider variables such as mileage, traffic density, time of day, etc. to determine the best solution.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Flexibility
An example of this would be participation in extremely competitive situation where much is expected of the individual. Another example of this would be military basic training that requires and expects a great deal in the way of physical and mental performance. After this many individuals often graduate with increased self-confidence and a greater work ethic.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Post-Traumatic+Growth+%28PTG%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interest+Inventory
Conflict-habituated marriages are identified by conflict and quarrels that are based on the provocation of one of the partners.

A devitalized marriage is one that used to have love but essentially an 'emotional divorce' has occurred - the partners are typically indifferent to each other rather than unsatisfied.

Passive-congenial marriages are ones that began empty and emotionless. These are marriages that were for convenience, social reasons (such as pregnancy or for financial reasons), or arranged by others.

Vital marriages are warm, loving, committed, and there is interest between the partners Communication and sharing are important often with a sense of 'oneness' rather than 'selfness' between the partners. Vital marriages typically have sexual expressiveness, determination, and a high tolerance to stress ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Marriage+Types
Example: "I like foreign cars because they are better than domestic."). Self-identity function (attitude holder's expression of some core or central value, example: "I'm not the kind of person that would drive a domestic car."). Self-esteem function (self-esteem maintenance or attitude holder, example: "A BMW is classy, not many people can afford one like me.") The most persuasive messages relate to the appropriate attitude function - for example, a luxury car brand wouldn't use saving money by getting good gas mileage as a selling point ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Role+Of+Attitude+Functionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Traumatic+Brain+InjuryGestalt image of the Rubin vase is a famous ambiguous image. Do you see a vase or two faces? https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Rubin2.jpg]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ambiguityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fragile+X+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automaticityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elderly+Person%27s+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Awareness
One example is a perceptual set which is an expectation to see or perceive something based on prior experience. Another example is a mental set which is the tendency for individuals to approach problems using only solutions that have worked in the past.

An example of a mental set would be attempting to fix a friend's computer by using methods that have always worked on yours without considering their computer is a different brand and has a different operating system that doesn't work the same way. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Set
Abstract attitude can also refer to a concept introduced by psychiatrist Kurt Goldstein that describes the ability to use concepts to categorize things according to their specific attributes- thinking in a symbolic manner rather than in a concrete manner. The ability to do this can be impaired in individuals with brain damage or diseases.

Abstract attitude can also refer to a mental skill in which an individual is conscious of multiple elements of an environment or situation by coupling them together but is still able to separate and pay attention to the separate components without losing focus of the others. For example, a security guard's abstract attitude would be evident when focusing on a possible individual threat while still being able to focus on the entire crows. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstract+Attitudehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lexiconhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ability
An example would be someone using "I am totally devastated," or "My life is completely destroyed" to describe situations that are difficult to deal with. This cognitive bias is characterized by thinking is all or nothing, black or white, and absolutist. Although this is a normal short-term reaction to sudden life changes and unfortunate events, it's also normal to regroup and cope with the situation.

Absolute thinking and an unusual difficulty or inability to acknowledge and/or cope with life challenges can be a symptom of serious mental or physical illness such as depression anxiety, or even diseases such as Parkinson's. Individuals who exhibit absolute thinking have a general tendency to readily categorize things in their environment and there seems to be a link with authoritarianism thinking. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Scale
For example, many patients, when leaving an inpatient drug abuse program, are strongly advised to not return to their former drug-related social situation or hangout where there would be too many triggers that might cause a relapse.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstinence+Rule
As as example, at twilight (morning or evening) as the natural light levels increase or decrease visual acuity changes. As night comes on object visibility changes from being seen with color and sharp definition (using cones), to less definition in color and shape, to being seen in shades of gray and black with indefinite edges (using rods), all the way to being unseen if the light levels are low enough.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Visual+Acuityrandom assignment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accidental+Samplinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Archival+Measuresid, superior attitudes, feelings of superiority, and beliefs in immortality held by the client. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ozymandiashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affiliation+Need
For example, when dealing with infectious or dangerous bioorganisms this process is called biocontainment. Primary containment is basic safety procedures such as using effective, safe storage measures along with protective gear. Imagine some researchers at a biological research center may have been unintentionally exposed to a spreadable virus. Containment would be accomplished by making sure all of the safety measures were intact, decontaminate those who may have been affected, and possibly being quarantined and monitored until enough time had passed so that they could be deemed safe. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Containment
For instance, some species have taken on behavioral changes as their environment has changed such as a species of Japanese monkeys from a cold climate that learned in recent years how to enjoy sitting in local hot springs for warmth.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evolved+Psychological+Mechanism+%28EPM%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gynocentrism
An example would be an undercover officer posing as a sex worker who aggressively and persistently approaches their target until they relent and involve themselves in the criminal offense of prostitution. Although entrapment is sometimes used effectively and for a good reason it is considered an ethical quandary in the question of "would the person have committed the crime if it were not for the person who was 'entrapping' them?"]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=EntrapmentDispositional Factors.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trait+PerspectiveConsistency.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+ReliabilitySensitization.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pseudoconditioning
For example, an undergeneralization would be grouping fish, cetaceans (whales and dolphins) and octopi/squid into one category because they all live in the ocean, but even though they have the ocean in common they are three completely different orders of life.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Undergeneralization
For instance, in a wolf pack only the alpha male and alpha female mate. Becoming the ?alpha? in a pack generally means being the largest, strongest, healthiest and most dominant members of the pack thereby passing along these positive traits to the next generation in a practice known as homogamy. This pattern of mating increases the positive familial traits. Non-assortative mating, or individuals of varying genotypes/phenotypes mating is less common than assortative mating and decreases the shared familiar traits.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Assortative+Matinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Canonical+Correlationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitivism
An example of an inhibitory effect could be a post-hypnotic suggestion that might get a person to eat less, or to change an attitude about something or someone, etc. In science an inhibitory effect could be the use of a pharmaceutical product to block a body function, i.e. insulin to block blood sugar or antivenin to counteract snakebite, etc.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inhibitory+Effect
For instance, imagine Pavlov's dogs being taught to respond to a bell that is associated with receiving food. However, they can also be unintentionally conditioned to associating other stimuli to receiving that same food (for example seeing the person that feeds them, hearing footsteps or doors closing, etc) that occur within the same time frame as a scheduled feeding time. In this example superconditioning involves the addition of extra, and unintentional, stimuli that the animals would also respond in lieu of the bell signals.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Superconditioning
For example, rats can be trained to avoid certain parts of a cage through the use of mild electric shocks. On the other hand, secondary punishers are learned; parking tickets, scolding, error buzzers on game shows, etc.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+PunisherAutistic Fantasy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schizoid+Fantasy
These principles are organized into five categories: Proximity, Similarity, Continuity, Closure, and Connectedness.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Principles+Of+Grouping+%28Gestalt+Laws+Of+Grouping%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Principle+Of+Similarity
For instance, an individual is eagerly looking forward to an outdoor birthday party and expecting good weather and sunshine for the occasion. Their mood is upbeat and they expect that mood to continue. This is an example of "affective forecasting."'

However, the weather doesn't cooperate and it storms heavily and the party has to be cancelled. This results in a major mood change; disappointment, unhappiness, etc. This outcome proves the affective forecasting wrong.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Forecasting
For instance, for millennia humans have observed the sun appear to rise and set, apparently moving on its own and it took centuries for science to recognize that the sun is stationary and it is the earth that moves.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abductive+Reasoning
For instance, while preparing for an exercise that involves grouping like objects, the person administering the exercise might show examples of "which is not a flower?" while showing 3 pictures of flowers and one of a cow. After a few of these easy "warm-up" questions, the real questions may involve more complex comparison such as "which is not an electronic device?" and showing three electronic devices and a typewriter.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evaluative+Priming+Measure+
This is why, in the case of drugs and/or alcohol, a person constantly needs more to achieve the same effect that they felt the first time they used it. In drug parlance this is called ?chasing the dragon? because although you try to achieve the same ?high? or ?buzz? you never quite get there and keep increasing dosages.

Functional tolerance can cause medically dangerous situations as individuals sometimes keep on increasing dosages until they reach a point where it is lethal and they overdose, which can cause death. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Functional+Tolerancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceptive+Deafness
IOR was first identified by Michael Posner and Yoav Cohen. The theory behind IOR proposes that when responding to a stimulus individuals are more likely to orient towards novelty (in this case responding faster and more accurately to a stimulus not associated with a previously irrelevant stimulus.)

For instance in out modern world many machines beep when somethings is wrong, so much so that it is easy to tune out the beeping and puzzle over what is wrong in your car or with your computer. However, while driving a car a novel noise such as a siren, or a strange noise from the engine will immediately draw your attention.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inhibition+Of+Return+%28IOR%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Verbigeration
An example of this in the business world might be when a manager implements a new business plans and it meets with their personal, individual definition of success rather than the definition of success in their field. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subjective+Utility
Females are generally physically smaller, more cooperatively-oriented, less muscular, more overtly emotional, etc. Across the world and over the centuries definitions of what constitutes expected and valued masculine and feminine behaviors have varied. By and large throughout time heavy labor such as is required for farming and hunting has been part of the masculine definition while cooking, food preservation and performing the labor necessary to keep the family and home functioning have been part of the definition of feminine behavior.

There are, however, anomalies that have occurred in some cultures such as the phenomenon of women warriors that have been found in central Asia. Some cultures (such as European/American/middle eastern cultures), often religion-driven, have had extremely narrow definitions of what is considered acceptable masculine/feminine behavior as determined by genitalia, while others are more flexible allowing individuals to follow their own internal and emotional dictates and having languages that recognize more than two gender labels.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+Definitionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Authenticityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attention+Spanhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Artificial+Creativityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aphanisishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antipathy
Commonly seen in a codependent relationship is one partner having an excessive reliance on others for approval and to achieve a sense of identity. It is believed to be related to dependent personality disorder but is characterized by subclinical/episodic/situational episodes, rather than as a personality constant. Basically, a codependent personality is someone who cannot function from their innate self and organizes their behavior and thinking around another person's acceptance and tolerance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Codependencydependent personality can sometimes be classified as having dependent personality disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dependencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interpersonal+Conflicthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Managementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Coefficient+Of+Determinationparietal lobes. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acatamanthesia
For example, some people grab a beer or pour a drink immediately after getting home from work. When the body is accustomed to this pattern it will start to prepare itself for an influx of alcohol and start producing a chemical response that keeps the individual from feeling drunk immediately. This is considered the "conditioned compensatory response." In treatment settings, exposing patients to this conditioned response without the support of the unconditioned stimulus (alcohol) can be useful to wean a person off of their alcohol addiction. This process is called extinction and is recognized as a part of the spectrum of classical conditioning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioned+Compensatory+Responsedeindividuation) and get caught up in a "mob mentality" and will participate in activities (violence, destruction, etc.) that, as an individual, they would never consider. This can be seen in group riots that follow emotionally charged situations such as political protests or sporting events. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unrestrained+Group+Behavior
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3A1421_Sensory_Homunculus.jpg ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Homunculuscovariation model is used to judge the degree to which that a person attributes their actions to internal or external motivations. The ultimate question of this theory "is displayed behavior expected by social role or is it a consequence of normal behavior?"]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Correspondent+Interference
For example, a business owner would be using coercive power if they threatened to fire employees who reported workplace discrimination practices. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Coercive+Power
A control group helps ensure that any effects from the treatment aren't a result of the .

For instance, a scientist is researching clinical depression. He recruits a number of individuals that have been diagnosed as having depression. These people would be separated into two groups. The treatment group would receive medication and counseling, while the control group receives counseling and a placebo (rather than 'real' medication). At the end of the study the results of the study would be evaluated to see which group made better progress; the medicated group or the unmedicated group. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Control+Group
For example, the general concept of love could be said to be an abstract idea. It is somewhat ambiguous and though it shares common characteristics is is not a concrete, absolute concept. Another abstract concept would be war. War can take on many different forms and ideas. A concrete concept would be World War I. This is a specific, concrete event. Algebra uses abstraction in that letters are used to represent unknown numbers.

Abstraction, in the case of professional literature, is the process of condensing information from an article or monograph about research into the most salient points so that the prospective reader will understand the subject of the paper and the general conclusion that was reached. Referred to as an "abstract", this paragraph serves as a preface to the article or paper itself.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstraction
For example, a person may view an image in which basketball players are playing a basketball game using a soccer ball or a clock face that is missing one of its 12 numbers. The individual would need to point out that the soccer ball is incorrect or identify the missing number in the clock to successfully pass the absurdity test. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absurdity+TestTemperament is comprised of the traits and generally stable characteristics of personality that we are born with. Typically infants fall into categories and many of these temperaments remain generally constant through adulthood. Inhibited temperament (also known as behavioral inhibition or BI) is characterized by fear, distress, or withdrawal from new situations, environments, individuals, or objects. Children with behavioral inhibition tend to stop their activity and withdraw when confronted with an unfamiliar situation or person. They are vigilant of their surroundings when faced with the unfamiliar and don't approach new objects or individuals on their own. This temperament style seems to be stable and has been linked to future development of anxiety disorders, particularly social anxiety disorders. Research has shown that increasing levels of confidence and independence in children can reduce the severity of the behavioral inhibition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inhibited+Temperament
For instance, an ego-syntonic person who is generally kind and considerate of others is not likely to all of a sudden become violent and unpredictable. Changes in this condition can be a symptom of medical or psychological problems.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego-Syntonichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disorganizationselective mutism.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychogenic+Mutismvariable ratio.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ratio+Schedule
Typically circumstantial speech eventually returns to the relevant topic or question.

An example would be asking someone if they had a pet. If they are exhibiting circumstantial speech, they may begin by talking about the history of pets followed by their childhood pet's favorite food. Then they may talk about their friends' pets and what their names are before finally answering the question of whether or not they own a pet. Circumstantial speech is associated with schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Circumstantial+Speechhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acetaldehydehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acephalousadjustment disorder. Acculturation difficulties can include cultural belief conflicts, discrimination, and/or prejudice along with issues that arise out of social transplantation and migration. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acculturation+Difficultyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accommodation+Reflexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accidencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accessory+Cellhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accessory+Nervehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acceptor
Individuals from Britain are said to have a British accent. Accents also occur when some individuals are speaking a learned language, especially if that language was learned after adolescence. Some second language speakers have accents and some do not. Psychological research interests regarding accents include cognitive processes and how accents affect our perceptions and judgments of others.

Accents can be used to identify a person's status or social group and can sometimes be used to determine ingroup/outgroup status. Dysprosody which is a neurological speech disorder that alters the rhythm, volume, and prosody of speech so that it sometimes sounds as if the person is speaking with a foreign accent. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accentantidepressants, neuroleptics, antipsychotics, and anxiolytics. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chemical+Imbalancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glucostatshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pressure
For instance, the "the homeless man on the corner looks disheveled." An abnormal disheveled appearance can be a sign that something may be psychologically wrong. For example, schizophrenics often have a disheveled appearance when going through an episode. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disheveled
For example, the relationship that a child might form with their parents. This is a component of attachment theory and not only applies to infants but can also refer to the bond between friends, romantic partners, and other family members. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affectional+Bondhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Sciencenocicpetion) or nerves in the peripheral nervous system. This hypersensitivity can be a temporary reaction to illness as part of an evolved response to infection.

For instance, when a person has the flu it is very common to have body aches which seem as if pain is occurring all over. Opiod-induced hyperalgesia is when individuals who use opiods (morphine, codeine, heroin, etc) experience nociceptor sensitivity and become hypersensitive to painful stimuli. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperalgesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Euphenism
Passive consent is where a subject becomes part of the study chiefly through failure to refuse participation.

An example of this would be research involving a new teaching method. To see if it's effective an educational researcher may want to compare the test scores of a class exposed to the new teaching method and a class who used the previous method. Passive consent would be sending out a form to the parents telling them the nature of the research and providing means of them denying permission for this (i.e., "sign and return this form to exclude your child from this study"). All children would be included unless their parent returned the form.

Active consent would be sending a form that requires the parents to sign and return if they want their child to participate. Only the children whose parents signed and returned the form signifying consent would be included in the study. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Passive+Consentchunking, large amounts of information are broken down into smaller amounts of information that are easier to remember- these smaller bits are called chunks. For example, it's a lot easier to remember a phone number when it's broken down into chunks (709-555-0123 is easier to remember than 7095550123).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chunk
Essentially, these are 'tricks' that can be used to increase the ability to remember and recall information. Some of these include memorization, use of mnemonics, outlining important points, and chunking (hyperlink?). These techniques can be individualized for a specific learner or for the nature of the subject being studied.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Memory+Strategieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Allophone
For instance, a researcher studies a jungle-dwelling Amazon tribe and comes to conclusions regarding the tribe's social organization, history, traditions, etc. It would be an imposed "etic" bias for this researcher to then try to apply what he had learned from the Amazon tribe to an African tribe just because they both live in jungle environments.

See Emic and Etic definitions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Imposed+Etic+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abiosis
Another example could be not paying attention while putting things away and then having no recollection of where those things were placed. Although general absent-mindedness is an inevitable part of the human experience (we all experience it!) if it becomes a chronic problem or starts increasing in incidence it could be a signifier of a memory problem or condition such as Alzheimer's, dementia, or encoding failure.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absent-Mindednesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Pitchhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ABC
For instance, some people in the world are brought up with deeply ingrained attitudes towards other peoples and cultures and these attitudes are not questioned or challenged. These types of beliefs become part of one's being and life perspective. However, since these types of beliefs can also become a source of conflict and even violence, it can become necessary to evaluate the type and depth of negative attitudes to help an individual become aware of these attitudes and their influence on their perception of others.

Also see Implicit Attitude.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Implicit+Attitude+Test+%28IAT%29
It is a type of committee used in research in the United States that has been formally designated to approve, monitor, and review biomedical and behavioral research involving humans. This is a very important and essential step in publishing research. This step is meant to assure that published studies are authentic, properly conducted, and reflect the current state of research along with ensuring that participants will not be harmed or suffer distress from the study. Without this step it would be possible to print falsified results, state erroneous conclusions, use unethical methodology, or any number of other research fallacies that could mislead or pervert genuine studies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=IRB+%28Institutional+Review+Board%29
Essentially it is an effect that "carries over" from one experimental condition to another. This effect is seen when a subject performs in more than one condition making this is a common concern in within-subjects design.

For instance, a researcher wants to know the effects of a medication on memory. The subject is given a list of words to memorize in two different conditions: with a placebo and with the real medication. The researcher doesn't consider the possibility of carryover effects and uses the same list of words for both experimental conditions.

Any significant results of improved memory may not be a result of the medication - the improved memorization could have been carryover effects from the first condition. By using the same list from the first condition the subject is more likely to recall the words the second time. The carryover effects from the first condition are influencing the second condition making it seem as if there is significance when there is not. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carry-Over+Effect+%28Carryover+Effect%29
For example, you are a teacher and always use a blue marker to grade papers. Every time you grade papers you reach into the marker box and out of 8 different colors you select the blue marker. In research terms the blue marker is the target stimulus (the one that you want to select) while all of the other non-blue markers are 'distractors' that your brain ignores in order to be able to correctly select the blue marker. One day, you need to use a green marker. Because you typically choose the blue marker there is a brief delay in selecting the green marker. This change in stimuli from being a distractor (and previously ignored) to a target stimulus causes the delay that is known as negative priming. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+Priming
In math, this relates to the concept of the null hypothesis where a two-tailed solution might exist, but that only one of those solutions is valid. In a non-directional hypothesis the arousal and the test performance are closely related to each other and predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, e.g. the flow rate of molasses is directly related to the ambient temperature of the room.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Directional+Hypothesis
The general function of this system is to direct behavioral responses toward specific points in "body-centered" or egocentric (body-centered) space. Egocentric space, in this usage, refers to the distance in which a person or animal can physically effect their environment such as a person reaching out with their hands, or a snake striking a target. In this sense the supercolliculus is a part of hand-eye coordination.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Superior+Colliculushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Purity
For instance, imagine taking a sandwich survey of a population of 100 1st graders at an elementary school. Next, find out how many of them like peanut butter sandwiches. Say, out of this 100 1st graders 85 students like peanut butter and 15 don't. This would mean that 15% of this sample deviated from the norm of students who like peanut butter sandwiches. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Statistical+Deviation
This is especially important trait, or sets of knowledge, to cultivate for human services workers when dealing with clients of different cultures or socio-economic circumstances. Ideally, a social services worker would be a member of the culture with which they are interacting. When this is not possible, the social services worker should be both educated about the cultural group that they are dealing with as well as open-minded regarding the ways in which that cultural group differs from their own.

In North America this is seen where the Anglo-American culture predominates but it is necessary to work and interact with Native American, Hispanic, Oriental, and Middle Eastern groups as well as many others. These cultures differ from the predominant culture in many ways but still need to be understood in order to successfully assimilate into and function with the larger culture.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accurate+Empathic+Understanding
These verbal components include vocabulary, identifying parts of speech, recognizing synonyms and antonyms, punctuation use, reading comprehension, etc. as is appropriate to the students age/grade placement. This measures a subject's deviation from the average scores for their age and education. As with full-scale IQ scores 100 is considered to be average, with each 15 points above or below that average constituting one standard deviation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Verbal+IQ
As an example, we have all had the experience of looking at a bright light and then looking away. As you look away you will briefly see a succession of ghost image. These are "trailing" images.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trailing
For instance, we can all remember how in high school that there were always those who hung around with the star football players or cheerleaders and were trying to raise raise there own social profile.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reward+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Restricted+AffectPhilip Zimbardo.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prison+Studyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Excitatory+Neurotransmrittehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ordinate+Numberhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abscissa+NumberMood-Congruent Memory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mood+Dependent+RetrievalAbsolute Threshold.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+LimenUnconditioned Response.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+ReflexAptitude Test.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ability+Testepisodic memories as well as believed to be involved in depression. The dentate gyrus also plays an essential role in several brain functions including spatial coding and learning. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dentate+GyrusType 1 error which is a false positive. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sphericityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuroanatomyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=James+E.+Marcia
Simply put, this means that even though an individual has seen a task performed it is unlikely that they can reproduce that action without hands-on training. To scientifically demonstrate this hypothesis in 1983 the research team Shea and Zimmy proposed a theoretical framework to demonstrate this premise. This framework proposed that recognition and recall performance, although related to each other in the process of learning, can be partially separated and individually manipulated.

Two studies based on this hypothesis proved that recognition training (of a task) received prior to acquisition training kept the task in working memory all allowed for subsequent motor performance. This showed that having previously seen and recognized the tasks made imitating said task easier than a task undertaken without prior observation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deficient+Processing
It proposes there are two sides of personality, a type of bipolar self consisting of two systems of narcissistic perfection: a system of ambitions and a system of ideals. These are dubbed the "narcissistic" (later "grandiose") self and the idealized parental image. It is posited that these two opposite poles of the personality are defined by childhood experiences. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alter-Ego+Transference
Acoustical topics also include the fields of vibration and ultrasound and infrasound (range of sounds that are above and below human hearing range). This science is also used in the building of auditoriums and theaters for maximum sound fidelity. Acoustic research can also focus on the study of animal communication such as subsonic and ultrasonic sounds made by elephants and sea mammals as well as technologies that use vibration.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustics
For example, an adult suddenly "remembers" being sexually abused as a child. The questions that need to be asked are "Is this a case of repressed memory?" or "Is this newly-found 'memory' the result of a planted suggestion?" Experiments with planting false memories through hypnosis have been conducted and have shown significant results. These studies involve 'planting' harmless memories (like going to Disneyland and meeting Bugs Bunny) in the participant's memory.

However, false memories can also originate through dreams or through other outside suggestion. This is why practitioners must proceed carefully with memory work because memories are not always completely reliable. This ability of the brain to distort and/or falsify memories can make the investigation of a client's past challenging.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrospective+Falsification
For instance, if a person encounters new information regarding their career field their ability to retain the new information should be high. However, if a person encounters information about a field that is totally new to them retention of the new material is not as likely.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retention
Additionally, when a person is young there is a great deal of emotion attached to event memory. The intensity of the emotion involved causes these memory traces to be very intense. This is why, as a person grows older, that they can remember things from childhood and young adulthood yet have difficulty remembering things that have happened recently.

For instance, even when a person is in their 20's or 30's they can look back to their teens and wonder why they can remember every word of a favorite song but have difficulty remembering details about work or recreation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Remote+Memory
For instance, two siblings raised together can have radically different IQs and natural talents. Because of genetic variations between the two siblings and how these variations interact with their environment a wide range of personality/achievement possibilities can lead to an almost infinite range of phenotype possibilities for the individual siblings involved. This range of reactions to the combination of genetics and environment is at the crux of the "nature vs. nurture" debate. Reaction range is the spectrum of phenotypic possibilities that either of these siblings could end up with due to the interaction of their specific genes and the environment they are exposed to. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reaction+Rangehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Association+Cortex
When this occurs different organs and body parts will show differing DNA signatures. For example, a Chimera's skin, blood, and hair might show one signature while the internal organs might have a different DNA signature. How and why this condition occurs is not clearly understood nor is it known for sure how frequently this occurs.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chimerahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=CEEB+%28College+Entrance+Examination+Board%29
Examples of measurement properties for variables include having a true absolute zero, magnitude (being able to order the variables from lowest to highest), and equal intervals. Equal interval means that the size of a unit (or range of variables) is the same no matter where it occurs on the scale.

For example, you are giving participants a 1-10 scale to measure their levels of distress. The scale would be assumed to have equal intervals- the distance between 1 and 2 is the same as the distance between 7 and 8 on the scale. Measuring a variable using an interval scale includes the measurement properties of equal intervals and magnitude. A ratio scale of measurement uses a true absolute zero, magnitude, and equal intervals. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equal+IntervalsFreud this is housed within the superego and consisting of "the individual's conscious and unconscious images of what he would like to be, patterned after certain people whom ... he regards as ideal." It is the inside image of the person an individual wants and aspires to be. It is the perfect form of the self that a person strives to be. Freud first introduced it in 1914 in regards to his work on narcissism and later psychodynamic theories suggested the ego ideal was a combination of the ego and the id. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego+IdealKubler-Ross Model when experiencing grief and bereavement.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bereavement
For example, a corporation might create "focus groups" to brainstorm new advertising strategies or more efficient ways to handle situations within the company. This would be an example of action science. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Action+Science
For adults, there are aversives like parking tickets, loss of wages, spousal problems and others. Essentially, an aversive can be be anything that is considered unpleasant and can result in a change in behavior. Aversives are the core component behind aversive conditioning. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aversiveshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autassassinophilia
It's normal for people to make attributions (reasons or excuses) for behavior, their own or others.

However these types of attributions are not necessarily an accurate mirror of reality. This type of bias exists as a means of self-protection for the ego because humans have immense difficulty in objectively perceiving their own behaviors. Examples of attribution biases include the Fundamental Attribution Error and the self-serving bias. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attribution+Biashypochondriasis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illness+Anxiety+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychometricianhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Natural+ConceptPiaget's stages of cognitive development).

This is when a child's mental processing starts to comprehend that a quantity of matter, such as water or sand, remains the same no matter what shape of container contains the matter. This can be demonstrated by putting the same quantity of sand or water in two or more different shaped containers and asking the child which one of the containers contains more of the measured substances. So you have 8 ounces of water in two different sized cups: a small wide one and a tall skinny one. Before a child understands conservation they will say there is more water in the taller glass because it appears taller. After children understand the law of conservation they will know that there is the same amount of water in both glasses and they just appear to be different sizes. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conservations+Skillshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Humilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overjustification+Learningautonomic nervous system (ANS) that isn't caused by an underlying medical condition. The ANS is responsible for many of the body's automatic processes such as heart rate, respiratory functions, and digestion. Autonomic arousal disorder is pervasive autonomic arousability (AA) which is characterized by increased heart rate and palpitations, respiratory issues (like hyperventilation), stomach issues (nausea/vomiting), the need to urinate, and flushed skin. This condition is associated with anxiety and panic disorders. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autonomic+Arousal+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amineslearning disabilities. Learning disabilities can take many forms: hyperactivity, visual problems that cause written material to appear to move and shift that makes reading difficult (dyslexia), math difficulties (dyscalculia), problems with physical coordination, and many others. Learning disabilities can be dealt with through personally tailored special education programs, cognitive/behavioral therapies, and sometimes with medication.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Academic+Skills+DisorderDyslexia, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). These problems can interfere with an individual's ability to focus, concentrate, and absorb material being presented. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Academic+Problem
Abuse can take many forms; physical, emotional, financial, verbal, and sexual.

It is the result of one party (the abuser) having an advantage (such as size, physical strength, status, etc) over another person (the victim) and using that advantage to harm the victim. Abuse can take many forms and two of its most common forms are domestic abuse and child abuse. This abuse can take different forms and combinations of physical aggression, emotional control or manipulation, sexual (violent or unwanted sexual contact), and financial (abuse or control of another's financial resources) and can cross all age groups, genders, financial circumstances. There are many support and crisis groups that are available to victims of abuse and can help them get out of a bad situation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abuse
For instance, Catholicism calls for lifetime abstinence from sex for clergy and "religious" (monks and nuns) and advocates short-term abstinence by all members from a chosen activity during the season of Lent. Judaism and Islam both call for abstinence for consuming pork. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstinencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Symbolic+Thoughtdepression and in the depressed phase of bipolar disorder. It is also associated with the adverse effects of certain drugs, such as benzodiazepines. This condition can be treated, depending on the cause, using treatment methods for depression and/or the discontinuation, dosage adjustment, or change of medications.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychomotor+RetardationRorschach inkblot test or the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are important and necessary as a means of bypassing a client's defenses and to discover their unconscious needs, motives, and conflicts. These types of tests rely on the test subject's completely subjective interpretations of inkblots or of the ambiguous pictures of the TAT. These interpretations that come out of subject's subconscious and imagination can provide insights into the inner workings of the mind.

For instance, a TAT picture might cause one person to create a positive story about the image while another person might create a negative story about the same image. A professional trained in these projective testing methods can create a psychological profile based on the subject's responses. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Projective+Hypothesis
These principles are organized into five categories: Proximity, Similarity, Continuity, Closure, and Connectedness. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Principles+Of+Groupinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimental+Realismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preoccupationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Posturing
This difficulty is generally referenced by the repetition of words or gestures without a stimulus.

In a school setting this would be the students who aren't able to switch subjects or transition between classes easily. In a clinical setting this would be the client or patient who sits alone talking to him or herself or continuously repeats the same words of phrases. A person who is in a state of perseveration will ramble on and on and not adhere to normal conversational cues such as back and forth discourse and pausing to let another person speak. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychology+Perseveration
For instance, online you will find many quizzes that ask the reader to locate and identify one object or number out of a large group and then measure how quickly you found it. These tests purport to be tests that identify relative intelligence, but more realistically identify a talent for locating differences. We have also all seen puzzles where the reader is asked to identify a number of differences between two pictures. How long it takes to identify these differences is a measurement of perceptual speed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceptual+Speed
In humans the term papilla/papillae are most commonly used to refer to dermal papillae that are associated with hair follicles and and the four kinds of lingual papillae which are circumvallate, fungiform, filiform, and foliate papillae. These lingual papillae are located on the tongue and (with the exception of Filiform papillae) contain taste buds.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Papillae+%28Papilla%29Emotional Dysregulation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Labile+MoodFixed Interval Schedule.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=IntervalFreudian concept, they are unconscious psychological mechanisms that are used to reduce the anxiety that arises from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli, thoughts, or desires. These mechanisms are normal and can result in either healthy or unhealthy consequences depending on the circumstances and/or frequency with which they are used. Some of the most common of these are repression (denial of an event), identification (incorporating into one's own worldview) and rationalization (making excuses for behavior).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego+Defense+Mechanismshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstinence+Syndrome
For instance, you might look at another person and based totally on the way they are dressed, or how they behave, and make a snap judgement about them based on your own feelings and opinions. By doing this you are not using explicit, empirical, or reliable standards for this judgment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Judgement
In research you can have a type I error (false positive), type II errors, sampling errors, and errors of central tendency.

In learning and problem solving trial and error is a method by which something is attempted multiple times until a correct solution is reached.

In social psychology the Fundamental Attribution Error is a well-known cognitive bias in which we attribute the behaviors of others to internal, dispositional characteristics rather than situational or environmental explanations.

For example, if someone cuts you off in traffic the Fundamental Attribution Error would cause you to think that person was a huge jerk instead of thinking about possible situational reasons why they cut you off (loved one in hospital, having a baby, etc). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erroranalysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical test. Eta squared measures the proportion of variance in a dependent variable (hyperlink?) that is explained by the independent variable. Eta squared values range from 0 to 1 with values of around .26 considered large. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ETA+SquaredBehaviorism and is a type of <"https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoidance+Conditioning">avoidance conditioning which is the usage of an unpleasant stimulus in order to decrease an unwanted behavior. So to be escape conditioning an unpleasant stimulus is presented and the organism's response is to leave in order to avoid experiencing the unpleasant stimulus.

For example, if you squirt a cat with a water bottle typically it will respond by running out of the room. This is escape conditioning. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Escape+Conditioning
They divided the concept of power is into five separate and distinct forms: coercive, reward, legitimate, referent, and expert.

In 1965 Raven revised this model to include a sixth form: informational.

For an individual to have "expert power" the need to have what others perceive as having knowledge, experience, and special skills or talents. Expertise can be established by actions, formal credentials, and reputation.

Since 1965 this theory has been expanded to include the belief that coercion and reward can have personal as well as impersonal forms. Expert and referent power can be both negative and positive. Legitimate power, in addition to position power, may be based on other normative obligations such as reciprocity, equity, and responsibility. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expert+Powerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schizotypal+Personality+Disordercentral nervous system (CNS) and brain. It can also be used as a term to refer to disorders of brain function that affect emotions.

These types of disorders can include genetic disorders such as Down's syndrome, Fragile-x syndrome. Neurodevelopmental disoders can also be acquired disorders such as traumatic brain injuries (TBI), fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), and a number of other conditions that are related to the CNS.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurodevelopmental+Disorderstwo-factor theory of emotion in 1962.

This theory states that emotions are composed of two ingredients: physiological arousal and a cognitive label. This pairing causes an individual's experience of emotion to stem from a mental awareness of the body's physical arousal. So when seeing a poisonous snake, the Schachter-Singer model proposes that to have an emotion requires both physiological arousal (breathing fast, sinking stomach, sweaty palms) and a cognitive explanation for the arousal ("Yikes, that's a poisonous snake!"). During his career he also studied and published many papers about obesity, group dynamics, birth order, and smoking. As of 2002 Schachter was considered the seventh most cited 20th century psychologists.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stanley+Schachter
In psychology distinctiveness can have a few different meanings. In attribution theory, distinctiveness is when a behavior or action by an individual is judged by another to be common or unusual. This requires knowledge of the individual and their typical behaviors - this is called distinctiveness information.

Another concept using distinctiveness is contextual distinctiveness. This refers to the ability to better recall and remember events that are unusual, uncommon, and distinct. This also applies to stimuli - recall is better for stimuli that stand out and contrast against their environment.

Positive distinctiveness is a concept in Social Identity Theory and refers to when a group is made to appear in a more positive light typically being compared favorably to other groups. Their positive attributes are distinguished from other groups. This is common in sports teams. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Distinctivenessantidepressants, and antipsychotics. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Drug+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automatic+Thought
For instance, an individual who suddenly gives up a non-religious lifestyle to become highly religious can be said to have undergone a spiritual transformation. Piaget used the term transformation to refer to any type of change that an individual could experience. In psychoanalysis transformation is when unconscious ideas or desires are disguised so that they may become acknowledged by the conscious. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transformation
In the theory of evolution, natural selection is the means by which the phenotype (the visible and expressed genetic characteristics) of a species can change over time. In every species there are traits that nature deems superior to others; size, intelligence, natural weaponry, athleticism, etc. It is part of the reproductive instinct to choose a mate with superior traits.

These superior traits (traits that provide some type of advantage) are passed along to offspring. These superior traits are believed to confer a reproductive advantage in that more reproductive success is attained by having positive traits therefore more of these genes are present in the following generation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reproductive+Advantageelaboration likelihood model which consists of two different routes: central route processing (hyperlink?) and peripheral.

The peripheral route to persuasion consists of a person's association with positive or negative qualities in the stimulus that isn't related to the logical quality of the stimulus.

For example, in a speaker this would be things like the attractiveness, perceived authority, or superficial charm of the speaker instead of the quality or rationality of the message. In contrast, the direct method of persuasion relies on the logic of the presentation. This would be the rationality and logic of the speaker's message instead of their looks or personality. Central route processing occurs when the listener or audience is actually taking part in the message by thinking logically and truly listening to the speaker. This only occurs when the listener is motivated and is able to comprehend what the speaker is saying.

The peripheral route occurs when individuals lack the motivation or the capability to understand the speaker's message. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peripheral+Route+To+PersuasionPhilip Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment in 1971.

This theory states that both prisoners and guards enter into the prison setting with a particular mindset: guards with a "bully" mentality and prisoners with a basic disrespect for authority. The study, scheduled to run for 14 days was terminated after 6 days due to serious problems amongst the participants. In retrospect, they found that while the "prisoners" were pleased to leave the study prematurely, the "guards" were reluctant due to a basic enjoyment of the power they had wielded. 'Pathology of power' was the term coined to describe the enjoyment the "guards" received from their power and how quickly they began to mistreat the "prisoners" after they received this power. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pathology+Of+Power
This is often comorbid with astasia (when a person cannot stand) and is called astasia-abasia. There are different types of abasia including spastic abasia, trembling abasia, and paralytic abasia. Abasia can be a symptom of stroke, brain injury, Parkinson's disease, and conversion disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abiogenesis
Abbreviated reaction time (also known as reduced reaction time or central reaction time) as defined in 1868 by the Dutch ophthalmologist Franciscus Cornelius Donders (1818–89), is "the fraction of reaction time that remains after subtracting the time taken up by the passage of a nerve impulse from the sensory receptor to the brain and for another nerve impulse from the brain to the muscle."

Simply put, this is the reaction time minus the few fractions of a second that it takes for the body to send a message to the brain and then receive the physical answer such as the amount of time involved in touching a hot stove and pulling your hand away. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abbreviated+Reaction+Timehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aberrationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abney%27s+Lawhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ableism
This effect is credited to Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney (1843-1920) who was a chemist, physicist, and photographer. When white light suddenly illuminates a surface it first appears to brighten in the middle of the surface followed by the edges of the surface. When the light is extinguished the edges of the surface darken first followed by the center. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abney+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abortion
Blood contains many different antigens (commonly called factors): O, A, B, and Rh. These factors then combine to form blood types A, B, AB, and O with each of these types being either positive or negative for the Rh antigen. Accurate blood typing is essential when giving blood transfusions because some of these antigen combinations are not compatible with each other and can be fatal.

For instance, persons whose blood types are positive for Rh factor can be safely transfused with Rh negative blood of the same or compatible blood type while people who are Rh negative cannot be transfused with Rh positive blood. O negative blood is referred to as a "universal donor" because it can safely be transfused into anyone but can only accept transfusions from other O negative sources. On the other hand, people with AB positive blood can accept any type blood for transfusion, yet can only donate blood to other AB positives.

There is also a danger when an Rh negative mother is pregnant with an Rh positive baby.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ABO+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abraham+Lincoln+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agreeablenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=American+Psychological+Association+%28APA%29
For instance, as students we have all experienced having to make a choice between studying and going out to do something with friends. The responsible way to settle these types of conflicts is to take careful stock of the situation and consider the consequences, for instance "Is it more important to study because I have a test tomorrow?" or "Am I sufficiently on top of things and can reward myself with a fun evening?" These are kinds of decisions that people have to make everyday. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+Conflicthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Infertility
There are five identified steps that are characteristic of impulsivity disorders;: impulse, growing tension, pleasure on acting, relief from the urge and finally (not necessarily) a sense of guilt.

The DSM-5 includes a new chapter that covers Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders covering disorders "characterized by problems in emotional and behavioral self-control." This new section covers conditions such as intermittent explosive disorder (IED), kleptomania, and pyromania.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Impulse+Control+Disorders+%28ICD%29+
Depending on the nature of the misunderstanding it can lead to tension and arguments in all kinds of relationships; personal, platonic, intimate, workplace, etc. This happens because the people involved have different experiences and priorities along with different understandings of words and body language.

For example, one friend breaks an appointment to go to the movies because of a headache. The other friend might get their feelings hurt thinking that their friend just doesn't want to see them. These type of problems can be minimized through attempts to communicate clearly and clarifying points that are unclear.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Communication+Problems
Through the centuries many of these self-educated audodidacts have made notable contributions in the fields of art, science, music: Leonardo da Vinci, Charles Darwin, David Bowie, Steven Spielberg, Jimi Hendrix along with many others.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autodidacticismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autism+Diagnostic+Observation+Schedule+%28ADOS%29
This can also be the result of frequent change or excessive numbers of caregivers, or lack of caregiver responsiveness to child communicative efforts. A common result of this lack of attachment is a failure to trust. The most severe manifestation of the disorder is called reactive attachment disorder (hyperlink), a frequently destructive disorder.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attachment+Disorder
This model proposes that there are three different types of memory storage: short-term memory (STM), long-term memory (LTM), and a sensory register. Information passes through these different types in a one way, linear fashion and is similar to an information processing model (which are also used to model computer memory storage).

Like a computer, the multi-store model has three main stages of input, processing, and output. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Atkinson-Shiffrin+Model
This is rather like gossiping or "talking behind one's back" but on a much larger scale such as an "in-group" that ostracizes an "out-group."

Examples of this are Nazi Germany's ostracization of "non-Aryans" and South Africa's former apartheid policy toward non-whites. Antilocution is similar to "hate speech" but is focused on specific targets rather than being just a generalized hatred.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antilocutionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Intellecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptive+Control+Of+Thought-Rational+%28ACT-R%29"mindfulness" and acceptance as strategies that are combined with commitment and behavior -change strategies to increase a client's psychological flexibility. Originally called comprehensive distancing, this theory was pioneered by Steven C. Hayes and was first tested by Robert Zettle in the early 1980s.

ACT is intended to let clients open up to unpleasant feelings and to learn ways to not overreact to those feelings or to consciously avoid uncomfortable situations. It is intended to create a positive behavioral spiral where feeling leads to an improved understanding of truth.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acceptance+And+Commitment+Therapy+%28ACT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adolescent+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blended+Family+Issueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biblical+Counseling
Depending on the situation, it may focus on the art-making process itself or an analysis of the finished product. By using artwork, clients can express fears and conflicts that they might not be able to put words to. Oftentimes, it is useful to have the client explain the figures and other images portrayed. The analysis of art produced also varies between adult and child clients. Using art in therapeutic setting can be highly beneficial in that it allows a person to express feelings they may have in a more comfortable setting than talking out loud. Making art in itself can have meditative and therapeutic value and can help with symptoms of depression and anxiety. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Art+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pathocentrismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Disorganizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unstable+Attributionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trancedeindividuation which is when individuals in groups lose their self - identity which can lead to a loss of restraint and self-awareness.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Risky-Shift+Effect
For instance, when training a puppy to sit using a continuous reinforcement schedule you would reward it every time it sits on command. On the other hand if you used an intermittent reinforcement schedule you would only reinforce the puppy every other time they sit or after a random number of times. Intermittent reinforcement schedules are a much more powerful reinforcement schedule because the behaviors last longer and are more resistant to extinction. Intermittent reinforcement schedules are the driving force behind gambling. Lotteries and casinos let patrons win just often enough to keep them playing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reinforcement+Schedule
For instance, a person driving a car sees an obstacle in the road and must react to it either by stopping or going around it. This is a simple task if sober, but under the influence of an intoxicating substance, it can be much more difficult. Therefore the reaction time of an intoxicated person is longer than the reaction time of a sober person. Likewise, younger people tend to have a faster reaction time than do older people.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reaction+Timehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pure+Lighthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pseudologia+Fantastica+%28Mythomania%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pseudodementiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Profound+Mental+Retardation
For instance, if you are looking at a tree in the distance, but can only see top half, your brain is able to visualize the entire tree. Or in the image below you perceive a circle and a square even though some of the pieces are missing. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Gestalt_closure.svg/220px-Gestalt_closure.svg.png]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Principle+Of+Closureid and the pleasure principle that drives it. These types of thought are marked by preverbal content, illogical content, and an emphasis on immediate wish fulfillment. It also equates thought and action (e.g. "magical thinking") (hyperlink?) and is typical and characteristic of childhood thought processes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+Process+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+Processhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Performance+AnxietyZimbardo as referring to the social deterioration that is experienced by prisoners. This conclusion was reached in an analysis of his Stanford Prison Study that was conducted in 1971. In this study, the prisoners as a group rebelled against the existing conditions but after the guards proceeded to undermine all attempts at rebellion the solidarity that existed among the prisoners dwindled and the collapsed.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pathological+Prisoner+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paranoid+Delusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Panichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moderate+Mental+Retardationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Loominghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Polyphagiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Polgynyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Person+Perception
Examples of positive symptoms include hallucinations (tactile, auditory, visual, olfactory and gustatory), delusions, and disordered thoughts or speech. These symptoms are typically considered to be manifestations of psychosis. On the contrary, negative symptoms refer to symptoms that are characterized by their lack of something that should be present.

Examples of negative symptoms include lack of speech (alogia) or action, lack of interest or motivation (avolition), and social isolation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Symptomsbipolar disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and amphetamine use. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pressure+Of+Speech
Afterburn occurs after the event is already over- the contrasting concept is called reach back which is the effects of an event/situation before it happens (for example, the stress and anticipation before a big event).

Examples of afterburn can be as minor as the residual stress or anxiety after a big exam to as serious as the extreme anxiety or PTSD a soldier suffers after returning from combat. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Afterburn
Allophilia is simply liking others who aren't like you. Encouraging allophilia has been proposed as a possible means to reduce conflict between groups. There are four main factors in allophilia that have been identified: admiration, trust, connection, and engagement.

An example of allophilia would be scholars and students who admire, study, and embrace cultures that aren't their own. Another example would be individuals who aid displaced or persecuted individuals such as the people who hid and rescued Jewish individuals who were being targeted and killed by the Nazis in World War II. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AllophiliaFreud proposed is responsible for controlling how psychic energy is used by the id.

Psychoanalytic theory suggests that psychic energy is used by the id, ego, and superego with the id being the first place the energy goes. Cathexis is when this energy is directed towards something such as an object, another person, or a concept. The id can't tell the difference between fantasy and reality therefore it can have impulses that are negative, immoral, or socially unacceptable. When the ego blocks these unacceptable desires anticathexis occurs. Anticathexis blocks the unacceptable cathexes from the id. Repression is probably the most common and well known anticathexis. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anticathexis
Basically, it is a measurement of the range between the smallest amount of a medication that is effective in treating the condition that it is aimed at to the point where the medication becomes toxic and dangerous to the subject. This is used to identify the therapeutic levels of a medication for use and to identify at what level of dosage the therapeutic agent becomes dangerous and toxic. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Therapeutic+Window+%28Therapeutic+Index%29axon terminal where neurotransmitters are stored before being released across nerve synapses. These vesicles are essential for propagating nervous impulses across synapses and are constantly being recreated. The portion of the axon that holds the group of vesicles is called the axon terminal or the bouton. This mechanism was not discovered until the 1950's when the invention of the electron microscope made the synaptic vesicles visible. The synaptic vesicles are vulnerable to the ingestion of neurotoxins such as botulinum, tetanus, and some spider venoms.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synaptic+Vesicleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subject+Bias
Interestingly, this faculty works best for people when they are looking at features within their own racial/ethnic group. This is the basis for the commonplace statement "That all (fill in the blank ethnic group) all look alike." This is a problem with eyewitness identification a member of a different ethic group even though when looking at photographs of multiple members of an ethnic group it is obvious that there is a great deal of variety of features within any group of individuals.

Some individuals who have prosopagnosia or 'face blindness' have difficulty or the inability to recognize faces and structural encoding discrepancies may be involved in this. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Structural+Encoding
For instance, standardized tests such as the WISC-R or the WAIS-R are periodically updated to reflect changes in society and education norms. These new revisions of the test are then given to a large sample populations to make certain that they are accurately measuring the intended skills and knowledge.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Standardization+Sample
For example, an adult who is living what is typically considered a conventional, respectable life (nice house, beautiful family, well-paid and important job, etc) has it revealed that when they were younger they had made pornographic movies. Most people would feel shame if this type of information went public.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shame
Frequently sudden and occurring without warning, seizures are characterized by convulsions and spasms, altered cognition, and sometimes loss of consciousness.

Seizures can happen only once, but if they are repeatedly occurring then the individual may be diagnosed with epilepsy. Seizures can be divided into two categories: generalized and partial (or focal). Generalized seizures begin in both sides of the brain and include grand mal (tonic-clonic), petit mal (absence), and infantile spasms. Partial seizures begin in a localized and specific area of the brain. Sometimes they stay within the area they started and sometimes they spread to the rest of the brain. Causes of seizures include drug and alcohol withdrawal, stroke, brain tumors, brain injury, brain infection, eletcrolyte imbalance, blood sugar levels, cancer, and some medications. Seizures can also be induced by repeated flashing lights like a strobe light or in some video games. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Seizurecentral nervous system. Most sedatives affect the neurotransmitter Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) which decreases activity in the brain. Sedatives have a relaxing effect which is used to treat anxiety and sleep disorders. Common sedatives include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. Sedatives do have a risk of being abused so they should be used only when needed. Withdrawal symptoms can occur if an individual becomes addicted and usage stops. Sedatives can cause death at high doses or if used in conjunction with other CNS depressants. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sedativesoperant conditioning that describes punishers that acquire their effect as a result of conditioning instead of being naturally negative stimuli. In behaviorism, a punisher is something aversive or negative that makes the likelihood of a behavior decrease.

Your parents taking away your privileges for getting bad grades is a type of punishment. Primary punishers are innately punishing in that we are naturally and biologically averse to them.

Examples of primary punishers include physical pain, being burned, feeling too cold or too hot, and being hungry. You don't have to learn that being burned is a bad thing - you immediately know it the first time you touch something too hot. Secondary punishers are things that we don't innately have negative connections with so we must be conditioned to associate them with being aversive.

For example, if you had no association, experience, or knowledge of a speeding ticket then it wouldn't be a punisher. It would just be a piece of paper. But once you learn what a speeding ticket is and what it represents (wasting a lot of money!) then it becomes a punishment in that it makes the undesired behavior (speeding) less likely to occur in the future. We aren't born with an innate response to exposure to a speeding ticket- it's a secondary punisher because we learn and are conditioned to know what it means. This concept applies to reinforcers as well in that secondary reinforcers are learned rather than being naturally present. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary+Punisher
Primary process thinking is associated with the id and is childlike, dreamy, fantastical, and illogical. It is focused on immediate wish fulfillment and instant gratification. Secondary process thinking is associated with the ego and is logical and more sophisticated. It is causal and consistent with real world thinking. In secondary process thinking concern is focused on the environment and consequences rather than the satisfaction of only the self as in primary process thinking. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary+Process+Thinkingdefense mechanism used to disguise the psychological disturbance from an event as resulting from another (typically less traumatic) event or memory. It is a blend of repression and transference.

An example would be an adult experiencing severe depression and anxiety. Although they experienced an abusive and traumatic childhood that is most likely the root of these psychological disturbances the client uses a screen memory and blames their issues on a minor traffic accident they experienced. By doing this they are repressing or minimizing the effects their early trauma had on their psyche and instead is blaming a less traumatic event instead. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Screen+Memory
Added into this model is the influence that drug and alcohol use can have when added to stress levels and predispositions along with coping skills, social support, and participation in meaningful activities such as work, parenting, school, and home life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vulnerability-Stress+Model+%28aka+Stress-Vulnerability+Model%29
For instance, administrative psychology can be used to promote cooperation and teamwork among co-workers.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Administrative+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Calvin+S.+Hallhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Francis+Galton+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sand+Bagginggenotype of the individual.

Active genotype–environment correlation starts around the ages of 8-9 and is when children begin to seek out situations and environments ('niches') that are compatible with their genotype. These niches that are chosen will strengthen the gene expression.

For instance, a child who is naturally athletic may begin to start playing sports in a more serious manner at this point in their lives. Or a child who is outgoing and talkative may seek out highly social activities while a child who is more introverted may be more interested in science or reading. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Genotype-Environment+Correlationempiricism. This highly structured method of exploration is in contrast with the "trial and error"method that is used in other fields such as music and art. Emphasis is placed on the scientific method along with experiments and experimental research. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimentalismgenotype of the individual. Evocative genotype–environment correlation describes behaviors that are influenced by genetics and the reactions of other people to those behaviors. This means that behaviors that are determined by genetics will affect the response and associated behaviors of other people towards them. These behaviors of others in turn will strengthen these genetically based behaviors. The evocative rGE influences a person throughout their entire life.

For example, a person who is naturally kind to others will typically receive positive attention and thoughts of high regard from the people they associate with. These reinforcing behaviors make the kind behaviors stronger and more likely to be expressed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genotype-Environment+Correlation+%28rGE%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ovumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reminiscence+Bumphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prosodybias in which researchers only publish positive or favorable results while not publishing results that are negative or that don't confirm the hypotheses of the study. It is allowing results to determine whether or not the study is released or published. This can cause negative effects in that it can make research seem skewed - it can make significance and positive results seem more universal than they actually are.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=File+Drawer+Problem+%28Publication+Bias%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spontaneous+Trait+Inference+%28Unconscious+Inference%29
For example, when seeking information from a very large population (i.e., all males below age 50 in the United States) it is much more practical to take a random sampling from this population and then evaluate the data from this sample and then generalize it to the population at large.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sampling+DistributionErickson's Psychosocial Stages of Development, (hyperlink?) specifically stage 7 which is Generativity vs Stagnation. This stage occurs between ages 25-64. If a person of this age group fails to experience a sense of generativity (growing and building a sense of productivity) they will develop a sense of "stagnation" that results in self-absorption and little connection to others. This results in rejectivity and an inability to feel any sense of meaning. This can also be called an unresolved mid-life crisis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rejectivity
Also known as the "older brother effect," it has been observed that the more older brothers a male child has, the greater the probability of his having a homosexual orientation. Research shows that this prediction holds true for approximately 15% of the male homosexual population. Conversely, there does not seem to a correlation for female birth order.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fraternal+Birth+Order+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Feature+Extraction
An infant might be diagnosed with "failure to thrive" (a potentially fatal condition) or an older child might develop reactive attachment disorder, a dangerous condition in which a child will engage in violent and destructive behavior such as killing pets or setting fires. While maternal attachment has been discussed and studied since the time of Freud, serious research into this area was not undertaken until after WWII when medical and other social service professionals needed to deal with large populations of orphaned children who were being brought up in institutions with few, if any, opportunities to bond with parental figures. Early researchers in this area include John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deprivation+Of+Attachment
Ontological study is traditionally considered a part of the metaphysical category of philosophy. This study seeks to answer questions about how entities exist and how they can be grouped, placed in a hierarchy, and subdivided into categories such as orders, phylums, and species, etc.

For instance, if you are looking at animals that swim you are dealing with fish (the majority of swimming animals). But there are also swimming mammals (whales, porpoises, and dolphins) and birds that can swim (ducks and penguins). Each of these species is categorized by physiology, diet, natural abilities, method of respiration, anatomy, etc. in order to find its place on an ontological chart.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ontologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tryophobiaforebrain to the rear of the preoptic area of the hypothalamus. It, and the olfactory tubercle, together form the ventral striatum which is a part of the basal ganglia.

The cerebral hemispheres on each side of the brain have their own nucleus acumbens. These structures play a significant role in the cognitive processing of aversion, motivation, reward, incentive salience, pleasure, and positive reinforcement. The nucleus acumbens are also involved in the processing of fear, impulsivity, and placebo effects. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nucleus+Acumbenshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Individuality+%28Selfhood%29
An example of a brain stimulation technique is transmagnetic cranial stimulation (TMS) which is a non-invasive procedure that uses a large metal coil with electromagnetic components that is placed on the scalp over particular regions of the brain and has been shown to be effective in treating some medical conditions.

Another example is deep brain stimulation (DBS) which is a surgical procedure that implants a medical device known as a neuro-stimulator into the brain. The implanted electrodes are used to electrically stimulate selected portions of the brain to treat movement and/or affective disorders such as Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis along with disorders such as major depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. Other examples include vagus nerve stimulation (VGS) and magnetic seizure therapy (MST). Brain stimulation therapies are typically only used when other treatment methods (such as medication and therapy) have been ineffective and sometimes it is used in conjunction with medication and therapies. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brain+Stimulation+Techniqueslesion is damage to a part of the brain that results in destruction to the neurons. Lesions can come from natural sources (like brain injury or disease) but can also be deliberately caused.

Lesion methods are when lesions to a specific part of the brain are deliberately created. This can be done by surgically cutting and/or removing part of the brain, by electrical currents, or by chemicals that kill neurons. Reversible lesions can be caused by using extreme temperatures.

Lesion methods are used in research as a means of seeing which parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions. For example, if the amygdala is lesioned it can cause a reduction in fear and emotional responses. Lesion methods can also be used as a treatment for severely damaging and dangerous disorders that are a threat to an individual such as severe epileptic seizures. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lesion+Methodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Postural+Swayhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glucostatic+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aptitude
Relational processing is using elaboration as a means to retain information. The MAP framework proposes that relational processing is effective for long term retention because it uses similarity and connections from already known information to learn new information.

An example of this might be the fact that when a person is receiving hand-on experience of a field or process with which they already have a familiarity it is easy to incorporate new information into their personal body of knowledge.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Material+Appropriate+Processing+%28MAP%29+Noam Chomsky's menopause and andropause.

Menopause is natural biological change in a woman's menstrual cycle that signals the woman's ability to reproduce is ending and includes hormonal changes and side effects such as hot flashes.

Andropause (sometimes referred to as 'male menopause') is the gradual decline in hormones due to aging with a reduction in testosterone (an estimated loss of 1% every year after the age of 30) with symptoms such as sexual dysfunction, body changes (more fat and less muscle), sleep issues, and emotional changes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Climacterichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=3+Sins+Of+Distortionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trephininghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Embodied+Cognition
For instance, asking some types of questions may cause unpleasant feelings or memories to arise in the subjects and make them feel bad. In this case, a researcher must make a cost-benefit analysis to decide whether the end results are worth the possible cost or harm. In the past, when ethics were not as stressed as they are today, many experiments were undertaken that had negative results on the subjects.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beneficence
Among the most famous and notable parts of Bandura's work is the landmark Bobo doll experiment where it was demonstrated that children would imitate aggressive actions after having witnessed aggression.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social-Cognitive+Perspective
This concept is credited to the linguist and cognitive scientist Noam Chomsky. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Universal+Grammar+%28UG%29
For instance, some people of Native American culture who practice traditional lifestyles have beliefs about life and its relationship to the supernatural that are very different from Anglo Americans. This doesn't mean that either one is necessarily right or wrong, just different and these different points of view must be taken into consideration and respected.

For instance, in Navajo culture there is a belief in shape-shifters and the belief that anyone who has seen one of these beings is cursed and needs special ceremonies to remove that curse. Just because Anglo culture doesn't share that belief doesn't make the fear of being cursed any less real. Cultural relativism must be taken into account when encountering culture-bound syndromes which are illnesses or combinations of symptoms that are recognized as a disease/disorder only within a specific culture or group. The DSM-5 contains a listing and descriptions of some of these conditions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cultural+Relativism
For instance, this means that every story we see on the news is like the top 10% of the iceberg. These newsworthy events don't exist in a vacuum. They have a multitude of events that led up to them, and cause a myriad of events afterwards. To truly understand an event it is necessary to explore the hidden 90%. The same with mental health clients, presentation is also like that top 10%. It is also frequently necessary to explore the client's past and present to put behavior into perspective.

In psychology the iceberg model is commonly used to describe Freud's 3 levels of consciousness.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Structural-Iceberg.svg/1920px-Structural-Iceberg.svg.png]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Iceberg+Model
An example of this is the Necker cube. http://www.youramazingbrain.org/supersenses/necker.htm Distorting images are the images that use color and shape to give an impression of motion.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_illusion#/media/File:Caf%C3%A9_wall.svg Paradox illusions are images that seem to represent the impossible. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impossible_object#/media/File:Poiuyt.svg]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expectancy-Value+Theory
For instance, while negotiating the price of a major purchase, the purchaser might make an inflated guess about what the retail markup was thereby allowing the salesperson to correct them, e.g. "I suppose the store's markup is around 75%?", "No, the markup is only 25%." This ploy got the salesperson to divulge what would normally be a closely guarded secret. From this revelation the consumer may be able to negotiate a lower price without ever needing to specifically ask or demand further info.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elicitationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alpha+%2B+Beta+Bias
An example of someone with low social sensitivity would be an individual who only talks about themselves, interrupts and talks over others, and who ignores social cues to stop talking. An example of someone with high social sensitivity would be a person who understands conversational cues and stops talking in order to listen at the appropriate time. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Sensitivitymoral development. Kohlberg would present this dilemma to people and then ask questions to determine their stage of moral development.

Here is the Heinz dilemma:

Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug and this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.

Kohlberg would then ask the following questions:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug? 2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife? 3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference? ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heinz+Dilemmalearned helplessness, is a mental and emotional state that can be trained and cultivated. As part of the perspective of positive psychology learning optimism can be accomplished by consciously challenging any negative self talk. This is done by recognizing the negative self-talk that we all engage in sometimes such as "I'm not good-looking enough," "I'm too fat," "I'm just a loser," etc. Once these negative thoughts are recognized it is necessary to substitute positive and optimistic self-talk, such as "I am strong and healthy," "My weight is just right for my body type," and "I'm the best person that I can be." ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learned+Optimismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overconstancy
Some causes of AFP include antagonists, spine damage or disease (such as a tumor), demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis (hyperlink?), myasthenia gravis, botulism, tick/snake bites, and various viruses. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flaccid+Paralysismnemonic in which new information is made memorable in order to be able to recall it more easily. It is making information more elaborate and complex in order to be more likely to remember it in the future. This is typically done by relating it and connecting the new information to already existing knowledge.

Examples of elaborative encoding include the peg word system and the method of loci ways of recalling information. An easy example would be meeting a person for the first time whose name you need to remember. Let's say their last name is Fisher. A method of elaborate encoding would be envisioning the person wearing a silly fishing hat and holding a reel as you mentally repeat their name a few times. This elaboration of their name with already existing knowledge about 'fishers' make the new information more salient and therefore makes you more likely to remember their name in the future. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elaborative+Encodingdefense mechanism in which a person attempts to atone or erase some negative action, impulse, or idea by performing behaviors that are contrary or 'opposite' to the undesirable one. It is an attempt to 'undo' a negative or undesirable behavior by doing the opposite.

Undoing is essentially negating a previous behavior or thought viewed negatively by performing a behavior contrary to it. Sometimes undoing is used as a means of tacit apology.

For example, a couple gets into a big fight. The next day the person who started the fight feels bad about their previous negative behavior so they buy the other person something they have been wanting for awhile. Instead of directly apologizing the person is 'undoing' their previous negative behavior by doing something nice for their spouse. Undoing is also thought to be tied to some of the behaviors associated with a href="http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Obsessive-Compulsive+Disorder">obsessive compulsive disorder.

Individuals with OCD perform ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) in order to alleviate the distress associated with their recurrent and obsessive thoughts. So a person with OCD who has distressing and frequent thoughts about germ contamination (their obsession) might wash their hands repeatedly to the point that their hands are raw as a compulsive method of undoing the perceived germ contamination.

A famous example of undoing in literature is Shakespeare's Lady Macbeth who believes there is blood on her hands (due to her involvement in a murder) that cannot be removed and washes her hands repeatedly in an attempt to 'undo' her undesirable actions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Undoingeating disorder in which an individual eats very large amounts of food (typically in a rapid manner) while experiencing a loss of control and feelings of shame or guilt afterwards. BED is the most common eating disorder affecting anywhere from 1-5% of the population. Although some people who have BED are obese some individuals present within a normal weight range making it more difficult to diagnose.

The DSM-5 identifies BED as a diagnosable disorder with criteria of eating abnormally large amounts of food within a short period of time exhibited by a loss of control.

Three of the following five symptoms must be present as well: rapid eating, eating until too full/experiencing discomfort, eating large amounts of food when no actual hunger is present, eating secretively so others are unaware of the extent of the eating, and feelings of disgust/guilt/shame afterwards. BED is treatable with therapy along with medication being the most common types of treatment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Binge+Eating+Disorder+%28BED%29vestibular sense.

Vestibular sense are the mechanisms that monitor and adjust the body's sense of balance and orientation and is what keeps the body upright while standing, sitting, or walking. The vestibular nerve transmits information that is responsible for body positioning and maintaining visual coordination while moving. Damage to the vestibular nerve (from encephalitis, Ménière's disease, autoimmune disorders, and some medications) can cause vertigo attacks, nausea, vomiting, and difficulty with balance. The vestibular nerve can also be temporarily effected by middle and inner ear infections and cause loss of balance and coordination. This is easily treated with antibiotics. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vestibular+Nervehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mesmerismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Maculahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Optical+Flowhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diminished+Awarenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+AccommodationGordon Allport) in regards to his trait theory of personality.

Allport attempted to explain personality as answering the question of uniqueness versus universality. He believed that the study of personality could be characterized in 2 ways: nomothetic (universal traits of personality that can be generalized to large amounts and types of people) and idiographic (characteristics that are unique to the individual). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Universality
It is a time where the individual is shaping their eventual adult identity in regards to interests, abilities, skills, relationships, and sexual identity.

This is a time for experimentation and shifting tastes and interests where social life can often take priority over family, school and work and where fitting in with the peer group is considered highly important. Lots of brain development and body changes occur during this phase of life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pubescence
A subject with complete albinism is called an albino, individuals who have only a partial lack of pigmentation is referred to as leucystic or albinoid. Albinism is often associated with visual problems such as photophobia, nystagmus, and amblyopia. It also causes a greater susceptibility to skin conditions like sunburn and skin cancers. In some cultures albinos are considered to have magical or healing properties and unfortunately sometimes suffer abuse or are even murdered for their body parts. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Albinismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dreamhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sleephttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=High+Self-Awareness
The fleshy, lower part of the ear is called the ear lobe and is attached in some people while free of attachment in others. Modern forensic science recognizes the shape of the ear to be almost as individually distinguishable as fingerprints for personal identification.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pinna+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Concealed+Observation
This contrasts from participant observation which is a type of research method in which the researcher/observer actively participates, interacts, and is involved with the group being studied. Although participant observation can lead to detailed descriptions and information shared by participants questions of objectivity can come to light. That is why non-participant observation is a common method of case study and observational research. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Non-Participant+Observerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perception+Illusion
Semipermeable membranes can be either biological or synthetic. Many factors influence the rate of diffusion: pressure, concentration, and temperature of the molecules or solutes on either side of the membrane. This process is called osmosis.

An example of a selectively permeable membrane is the lipid bilayer that surrounds cells and allows some substances to pass in and out of the cell. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selectively+Permeable+Membranehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interprevitismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interpretive+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stephen+Wiltshire
One type of pre-experimental design is the one shot case study in which one group is exposed to a treatment or condition and measured afterwards to see if there were any effects. There is no control group for comparison. An example of this would be a teacher using a new instructional method for their class. Their class could be measured at the end of the term to see if the new instructional method was effective. Another type is when one group is given a pretest, exposed to the treatment or condition, and then given a posttest to see if the treatment had any effect on the group.

For example, the teacher using the new instructional method gives their students a pretest at the beginning of the term, teaches the new method throughout the term, and then gives them a posttest at the end of the term. Again, there is no comparison group. Another type of pre-experimental design is a static group comparison. This is when two groups (one is given the treatment or condition, one isn't) are both given posttests to see if the treatment had any effects. Because no pretest is given it is unknown if there were any group differences before exposure to the treatment.

An example of this would be finding one class who had been exposed to the new instructional method and one class who had not been exposed and giving them both posttests at the end of the term. Pre-experimental designs are threatened by a lack of validity because it can be uncertain if any of the effects were due to the treatment or other hypotheses/explanations. That is why this type of design is best for exploratory purposes and in a truly 'pre-experiment' way. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pre-Experimental+Designobject-relations theory. It refers to a stage of emotional development that occurs in the first year of life (birth to 6 months) when a child first experiences the the conflict of life and death drives. This is believed to lead to a "splitting" effect while the child begins to grasp the conception of items being good or bad.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paranoid-Schizoid
For example, from the world of boating: a boat sinks and you conclude (proximate solution) that the hull was leaking and it capsized due to flooding. This is true, but if you look harder you will find a reason for why the boat was leaking. It may turn out that the boat hit a rock that caused the hole in the hull (ultimate solution).

In psychology, you might meet a client that suffers from depression. In talking to them you learn that some bad things have happened in their life (proximate cause). In learning more about the client and in consultation with a psychiatrist you might learn that they have a significant deficit in neurotransmitters that creates the physical depression that contributes to the emotional depression (ultimate cause).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proximate+And+Ultimate+Explanationsobject-relations theory. It refers to a stage of emotional development, usually encountered in the first year of life, when a child subliminally starts to realize that things and people can have both a positive and negative aspect. This realization, that is theoretically revisited throughout the lifetime, starts with the child's burgeoning understanding that they can have alternately positive and negative feelings towards their mother.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depressive+Positionaction potential. In simpler terms, this means the level of excitation (through neuro-chemical stimulation) that is needed for a muscle to react appropriately to a stimulus. For instance, when a person hears a loud noise the body releases an amount of adrenaline adequate for the person to have a startle reflex.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Excitation+Thresholdhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cryptomnesia
The most famous disease from history was the black plague that devastated Europe in the middle ages. Although there was little known about epidemic disease at that time it has been possible for later generations to figure out that the disease originated in Asia and was carried by fleas that lived on rats. The disease was introduced into Europe by means of rats that had been carried on ships. The infected fleas then spread into the native rat populations and transferred to humans due to lack of hygiene (and due to the belief that cats were evil agents of the devil and had been nearly exterminated in the cities). The disease spread up the trade routes from the major port cities and killed off a major percentage of the population of Europe. In modern times there is an understanding of how diseases spread that makes it easier to find and identify sources of disease.

A recent example of this was the Hantavirus outbreak that occurred in the southwest during the nineties. By research it was learned that this disease was spread by contact with deer mice urine. A treatment protocol was devised and persons who lived in locations where deer mice were prevalent were warned to use greater hygiene when dealing with areas of possible contamination.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epidemiological+Research+Methodshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Herbert+%28Harry%29+Stack+Sullivanhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Astigmatism
For example, locked-in syndrome (LIS) is a rare disorder in which a person's voluntary muscles are completely paralyzed with the exception of their eyes. Although their cognitive function is not diminished is can appear as if they are in a vegetative state. Although they appear to be in a low awareness condition they are not. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Low+Awareness
Hyperthroidism (too much thyroid hormone) can cause a person to be extremely thin due to an extra-high metabolism and is frequently associated with Graves' Disease, an autoimmune disorder. The reverse of this is hypothyroidism (too little thyroid hormone) that causes a person to gain weight and to have trouble losing weight.

Sometimes untreated sufferers of hypothyroidism can develop a goiter which is an enlargement of the thyroid gland that causes bulging at the neck. Hypothyroidism is easily and cheaply treated using synthetic hormones. Thyroid hormones are responsible for physical development and is secondary only to iodine deficiency as a cause for preventable intellectual disability. The problem of iodine deficiency in some geographical areas is the reason behind the addition of iodine to table salt.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thyroid+Glandhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mechanoreceptorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parathyroid
An example would be an alcoholic who is experiencing selective inattention in regards to the social and physical problems they are experiencing as a result of their alcohol consumption. Selective inattention is preventing them from perceiving the damage they are doing to themselves and others which would be mentally distressing. This is the opposing concept to selective attention.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+Inattentionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Help+Groupshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stable+Attributionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automatizationcollectivism which places emphasis and importance on the priorities and goals of the group opposed to the individual. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Collectiveness
Examples of animals who hibernate include some species of bats, squirrels, some rodent species, hedgehogs, marsupials, and snakes. Some species of bears also hibernate but it isn't as deep as the animal species previously mentioned. Bears who hibernate have a higher body temperature and metabolic rate which means they can be wakened more easily. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hibernationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatotropinhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stereophonics
Attention seeking behaviors such as Munchausen Syndrome are also a type of maladaptive behavior. There are particular types of maladaptive behaviors associated with Autism Spectrum Disorders such as rituals (repeated behaviors such as compulsively washing hands), self-harm, tantrums, aggressive behaviors. and behaviors such as scratching, pacing, and rocking. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Maladaptive+Behaviorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Constraint-Induced+Therapy+%28CI%29
In English, for instance, the words scent, aroma, odor, and stench are all references to how something smells. However, they have different slants on smell by having a connotation of whether the smell is pleasant or unpleasant or whether it is strong or delicate.

Additionally, words can also give an impression of "street level" speech or speech that is more refined and educated. Semantic slanting is heavily used in politics and advertising or anywhere else that it is necessary to use words in ways that are diplomatic or politically correct.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Semantic+Slantinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Aphasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Severe+Mental+Retardation
Likewise, traditionally women in this culture have been expected to be behaviorally and emotionally passive and non-confrontational. They are also expected to be less likely to display their intelligence and are by nature nurturing. Sexual scripts can change over time along with the shifting of the culture at large. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Scripthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Selectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexualizationsource traits. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=16+Factor+Personality+Factor+%2816PF%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Smooth+Muscles
For instance, a researcher may decide to do a study of children's playground behavior over one week's time. This short-term study might look at friendships, competitions, and bullying just as it occurs during one week's time and would be considered a snap shot study.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Snapshot+Studyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Snowball+Samplinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ZoophobiaAlfred Adler, the founder of Individual Psychology.

It is the suggestion that women reject a feminine identity in order to be valued and compensated in the same manner as men. In men it is typically expressed as a superiority complex. Adler proposed the concept of the inferiority complex which is when individuals compensate for feelings that they are lesser or not as good as others by acting in ways that give them an appearance of superiority.

According to this theory women are typically devalued in comparison to men in many areas of society such as the stigmatization of having a girl baby instead of a boy, women being compensated less for doing the same job as a man, and the pressure to look or act a certain way that is deemed culturally appropriate. A woman who is participating in masculine protest is essentially rejecting these socially constructed norms and refusing to participate in things that are considered 'feminine.' Men can also be influenced by the prominence of a masculine culture and participated in masculine protest themselves. In men it typically manifests as a superiority complex which is a used to hide feelings of inferiority by grandiose behaviors of being better and superior to others. It is the usage of an "I'm better than you" mentality in order to hide the unpleasant feelings or emotional distress of feeling inferior and inadequate. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Masculine+Protesthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Communion
For instance, in a research study a group that is formed from a random sampling of professionals, blue-collar workers, men, women, assorted ethnic groups, etc., would be considered a heterogeneous sample. However, a group of persons who are of the same ethnic group, educational level, age, and gender would be considered a homogeneous group.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heterogeneityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sullenhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dorothea+Dixhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ambivalent+Attachmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=P-Value
For example, some researchers are interested in how mood influences memory. For their study they want to see how much recall individuals in a bad mood have versus how much recall those in a good mood have. Before the recall test the researchers give the two groups passages intended to induce a negative mood in one group and a positive mood in another. The induction effect would be the resulting moods that were elicited by the passages the researchers gave the participants. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Induction+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Echolocation
For instance, gender roles vary from one culture to the next. In some cultures women are allowed to compete with men in the workplace and other cultures hold that women should remain in the home and be completely subservient to males. Each of these points of view are considered "correct" within their own cultural bailiwick, even though these opinions are diametrically opposed to one another.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relativismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperacusishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Margaret+Floy+Washburn
For instance, an anthropologist wishes to study a tribe which lives in the Amazon Jungle. To this end they go to live with this tribe for a period of time and in doing so participates in their lifestyle and learns their language, rituals, history, folklore, hunting/farming methods, etc. An example of this is the landmark study done by Margaret Mead in the 1930's entitled Coming of Age in Samoa. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Participant+Observationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Non-Concealed+Observationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ombudsmanhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Microsaccadesaxons of the central nervous system which are responsible for carrying information between the dendrites and the terminal buttons. The function of an oligodendrocyte is the creation of a myelin sheath (composed of 80% lipid and 20% protein) which is responsible for insulating the axon and speeding up the transmission of information. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Oligdendrocyte
This is a concept first introduced by the social psychologist Serge Moscovici in the 1960s. Social representations consist of values, practices, customs, ideas, and beliefs that are shared between individuals in a society or group. Social representation theory takes this concept and applies it to tenets of social psychology and group dynamics. Social representations are evolving concepts and are socially constructed. Moscovici suggested that new ideas become social representations by the comparison and integration of the unfamiliar with already known social representations. He also suggested that the concept of 'common sense' is a social representation - unfamiliar scientific thought eventually works its way down to the general public and laypeople who eventually integrate it into common knowledge. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Representations
SST can be used for young children who are beginning school or other social interactions for the first time. It is also used to help individuals with antisocial disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, social phobias, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and other personality disorders. SST is also used in situations where an individual is recovering from alcohol dependence and helps them develop sober social skills and how to cope at parties and successfully avoid alcohol. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Skills+Training+%28SST%29
These types of disorders are known as somatoform disorders. Hypochondriasis (sufferers are called hypochondriacs) believe that their normal physical sensations are symptoms of deadly infection and diseases. They will perceive a simple headache as a brain tumor and a cough to having tuberculosis. Hypochondriacs and malingerers use up a largely disproportionate amount of medical resources and finances. Somatization can also be seen in somatization disorder in which symptoms include physical problems that are felt, but are not associated with a medical problem.

An example of this could be a person suffering from severe headaches that are related to stress, rather than any organic cause. This practice becomes disruptive to the sufferer and those around them. It is important that the symptoms being reported cannot be explained by medical conditions or by substance use. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatization
For example, someone who is in a 'drunken stupor' may appear to be passing out, is unresponsive to people talking to them, appears sleepy, and has slow clumsy movements. A catatonic stupor, a symptom of catatonic states, is marked by immobility, no loss of consciousness, a lack of response from stimuli, and frequently the inability to talk. A stupor can be the result a toxic state such as drunkenness, infectious disease, severe, hypothermia, epilepsy, emotional shock and many other medical conditions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stuporhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Suicidalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sundowning
For instance, maps use symbols to denote towns, bridges, landmarks, and roads. Roman or Arabic numerals stand for numbers and the signs that are used in math indicate a mathematic function or relationship. Even reading and writing uses letters which are symbols used to represent sounds. Symbolic thought is a conceptual ability that develops in humans as we develop. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Symbol
Tactile hallucinations are symptomatic of many neurological conditions such as a schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, Ekbom's syndrome, and delirium tremens from alcohol withdrawal. Tactile hallucinations can also result from drug use such as cocaine and alcohol. Additionally, amputees who experience the phantom limb phenomenon are experiencing a type of tactile hallucination. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tactile+Hallucinationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tension
Examples of ultradian rhythms include eye blinking, heartbeats, sleep patterns, breathing, pulse, appetite, digestion, temperature regulation, and some hormonal cycles. Ultradian rhythms are contrasted with infradian rhythms which are longer than 24 hours and include the menstrual cycle. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ultradian+Rhythms
In the 19th century, when this myth was first reliably documented, many Europeans believed that "raping" a virgin could cure sexually-transmitted diseases such as syphilis, gonorrhea. and others. In the 20th century HIV AIDS came to be included in this list. This belief is believed to have roots in the ancient Christian literature that holds that virginity (and therefore virtue and cleanliness) had been a powerful defense mechanism for early female saints and that this "cleanliness" was transferrable through intercourse.

According to anthropologist Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala in South Africa this same thinking causes men to believe that what is referred to as infant rape (child rape) and rape of physically and mentally handicapped individuals is a cure for sexually-transmitted diseases due to the belief that young children are assumed to be virgins. Likewise, the rape of handicapped people is believed to be a cure because of the belief that handicapped people are sexually inactive and most likely virgin. Rape myth can also be considered part of the general "rape culture" that is believed to exist in modern culture and society. The rape culture belief states that social behaviors commonly associated with this societal environment include victim blaming, sexual objectification, trivializing of rape, the denial of widespread rape, a refusal to acknowledge the harm is caused by some forms of sexual violence, or some combination of these factors. Rape myths in this regard are widespread and false beliefs about rape that attempt to legitimize sexual assault or deny that rape even occurs at all. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rape+Mythhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kinesthetics
For example, a person exhibiting tangentiality is asked what their absolute all-time favorite food is. The may being by saying how they really like apples and how that they prefer red apples to green ones. This could lead to the colors red and green and how they are typically associated with Christmas. Then they may start talking about how Christmas is a fun holiday. This may lead to a discussion about how holidays are fun because you get to spend time with friends and miss work and school. This may lead to a discussion about how work or school is going. This is tangentiality - the initial question about favorite food goes unanswered while different loosely related topics are brought up. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tangentialityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Systematized+Delusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Survival+Advantagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spinal+Reflexeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somnolencedelusions and are false beliefs or impressions that are held even when rationality is challenged or contradictory evidence is presented. Somatic delusions are therefore false beliefs regarding the body and its processes that are held even when contradicting information is presented. Often times somatic delusions are extreme. Examples include the belief that the organs are rotting on the inside or infested with worms or bugs. A person may believe they are suffering from a rare and deadly disease even when tests are conducted that prove that isn't a possibility. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatic+Delusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Responsibility+Norm+%28SRN%29
These tests are then given to large numbers of test recipients covering the full spectrum of ages and education levels that the test is being aimed at to see if it seems to accurately measure what is attempting to measure. This process is called "standardization."

Once standardized, these types of tests are used to measure IQ and achievement in relation to age and educational levels and are used in schools, psychological practices, prisons, the military and many other venues. The SAT and Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) exams are examples of standardized tests.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Standardized+Testshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stereotypyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stutteringhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Substance+Abusehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theta+Waveshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thought+Blockingdelirium. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thought+Disorder+%28TD%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tics
In psychology, the term abnormal refers to behavior that deviates from what is considered "normal."

For instance, chronic insomnia is a deviation from the normal human need and ability to sleep on a regular schedule. Likewise, ongoing anxiety or depression are deviations from the normal state of everyday, short-term mood deviations. Although all individuals differ in some regards and there is no absolute 'normal' typically in science abnormality refers to something that differs so much from the majority that it is clearly outside the average or 'normal' range. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abnormalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstinence+Violation+Effect+%28AVE%29
Abuse takes many forms: physical, verbal, emotional, and sexual.

Physical abuse can be being the victim of physical violence such as beatings and punishments that are too frequent, inappropriate, or excessive.

Verbal abuse can take the form of name-calling, put downs, humiliation, and shame.

Emotional abuse can take form of being torn between feuding parents or parents that place too much emotional pressure on a child.

Sexual abuse is the use of children in a sexual manner for an adult's physical or emotional gratification. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abused+Childhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accident+Pronenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accreditationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquisitiveness
For instance, the iris of the eye expands and contracts in response to the brightness level in the environment. This is an automatic response of the eye, rather than a conscious reaction. Likewise, humans and animals have the adaptive reactions of "fight or flight" when encountering a new, frightening or dangerous situation. This reaction causes the release of adrenaline into the body preparing it to either fight or run away from a situation.

Likewise, the body has many built-in systems that subconsciously prepare the body or mind for routine activities. For instance, when a person who is in the habit of having an alcoholic drink every evening their body will automatically prepare itself for an infusion of alcohol. When a person smells food it is natural for the saliva glands to salivate and prepare the mouth and body for food consumption. These are just a few of the many subconscious adjustments that the body makes foe routine activities.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptive+Reactionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adolescent+Psychiatryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenergic
It is composed of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) and the enteric nervous system (ENS). These systems normally work together smoothly but when overstimulated by disease processes (neurological conditions such as rabies) or drug overdose can trigger what is known as an adrenergic storm that releases a massive amount of neurotransmitters simultaneously that can prove fatal to those with previous cardiac problems.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenergic+System+%2F+Adrenergic+Nervous+System+%28ANS%29
For instance, you can start with a statement that "John owns his own business and he is wealthy." From this statement we derive two statements: A) John is wealthy and B) John owns a business. From these two statements we might derive a conclusion C) John is wealthy because he owns a business.

However, if we critically examine this argument we realize that conclusion C is not a valid conclusion because we know from experience that not all wealthy people own businesses and and not all business owners are wealthy. By examining statements A and B we can understand from experience that there is no direct link between being wealthy and owning a business This is the nature of affirming the consequent; being certain that the conclusion reached is actually valid based on original statements. When examining research, arguments, or conclusions it is important to examine how conclusions were reached to evaluate the validity of the results. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affirming+The+Consequenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Analysis+Of+Defenses
For instance, a person gets a bad grade on a test. For most people this might cause a brief depression and a vow to study harder next time. A person who has a tendency towards anxiety hysteria might react with a severe bout of depression, suicidal thoughts, and anger towards the instructor or fellow students.

Anxiety hysteria is the opposite condition of "conversion disorder" where anxiety reactions present mostly as physical symptoms.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxiety+Hysteria
For example imagine moving a large object such as a couch into your house. You first try to move it in through the front door and it gets stuck. You then try it through the back door and it doesn't fit. You then move it through the double patio doors and it fits! You just used trial and error to solve a problem. Edward Thorndike, a researcher who studied learning theory by using cats and a specially made 'puzzle box.' He studied how cats learned to escape from the box and concluded it was through trial and error. This was a shift from the theory of insight learning which proposes that problem solving happens in a sudden flash of understanding rather than through trial and error. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trial+And+Error
An example is chattering teeth from cold temperatures or fear. It is not voluntary and it repetitive and rhythmic, back and forth. Most tremors occur in the hands and can be caused by many conditions. Tremors can be symptoms of neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis. Brain damage from stroke or traumatic brain injury (TBI) can also cause tremors. Drug usage or withdrawal can sometimes elicit tremors. Hypoglycemia, vitamin deficiencies, and improper liver and thyroid functioning can also cause tremors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tremorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transient+Global+Amnesia+%28TGA%29
It can be the result of withdrawal from drugs, a result of excessive alcohol consumption, or many other health factors. It manifests itself through a generalized and severe disorganization of behavior, attention deficits, changes in arousal levels, deficits in perception, alterations of the sleep and wake cycles as well as psychotic features such as delusions/hallucinations.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+Confusional+State
For instance, a successful high school athlete may aspire to a career in professional sports. Through careful training and practice they may play sports for a large college or university. After playing well there and continuing to gain strength and skills (and publicity) for their sport this may lead to a contract with a professional sports team. If all of these steps are followed successfully a person might be considered to have met "actualization" of their athletic goals.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Actualization
For instance, when students study science they can listen to lectures, or they can go into a lab and physically conduct experiments. By conducting experiments a student becomes physically involved in the processes of science (actions and reactions) and this is ultimately more memorable than listening and taking notes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquaintance+Rapehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aftercare
This is considered a binding legal document and is most commonly used to indicate a "do not resuscitate" (DNR) order in which the patient specifies that no "heroic" or extreme methods be utilized to preserve their life in the case of life-threatening illness or injury. Methods typically include cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and advanced cardiac life support (ACLS).

For example, a person may wish to not be on longterm life support if there is no brain function and can dictate this in their living will. If they are unable to make this decision themselves then hospital workers and family members are legally required to carry out the person's wish in this regard. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Advance+Healthcare+Directive
Empathy is the ability to emotionally understand what another person is feeling. Advanced accurate empathy is a state where a therapist is able to infer the feelings and concerns that are behind a client's actions. While highly subjective, these inferences can be made by watching facial expressions and body language. To reach this level of empathy takes considerable experience on the part of the practitioner.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Advanced+Accurate+Empathy
These can be caused by inappropriate use or improper dosage of a medication or a patient's previously unknown sensitivity to the medication. The adverse effects of medications are a frequent cause of a patient's non-compliance with prescribed treatment. Many of us have had the occasional experience of a medication that makes you wonder what is worse, the ailment or the medication? Unfortunately, patient non-compliance with treatment can, in some cases, be fatal. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adverse+Effectshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Flatteninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Reaction
An anal personality's penchant for organization is different from OCD. They do not obsess for hours about perfection, they insist on their own idea of perfection and try to impose that ideal on others. We have all probably worked with, or gone to school with, people who are so organized and so attentive to details that they other people crazy. They are also inclined to let everyone know that their ways of doing and seeing things are superior and drive the people around them crazy]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anal+Personality
This is accomplished through an evaluation and interpretation of the client's free associations, dreams and fantasies that come up during sessions. This attention to the details that arise from the client's subconscious mind is believed to display the unconscious conflicts that cause the patient's symptoms and character problems. Once these conflicts are identified the analyst can can confront and clarify the patient's defenses, guilt, and wishes as well as resistances and transferences. Traditionally, Freudian psychoanalysis is an extremely lengthy and time-consuming process. Later psychologists and psychiatrists have sought methods of treatment that are briefer and more effective.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AnalysandParkinson's Disease.

Akathisias are movement disorders with symptoms of restlessness, nervous movements, and the urge to be in constant motion. Fidgeting and repetitive movements such as swaying and crossing/uncrossing arms and legs are common. Neuroleptic-induced akathisia is caused by medications.

Medications known to induce this condition are antidepressants like selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and antipsychotics such as haloperidol. It can also be caused by withdrawal from drug addiction to opiates, cocaine, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+Neuroleptic-Induced+Akathisiaadrenal gland producing an insufficient amount of the hormones cortisol and aldosterone. Sometimes the adrenal gland doesn't produce these hormones at all. Cortisol is involved in nutrient metabolization, inflammatory response, liver processes, blood sugar levels, and the amount of water in the body.

Aldosterone regulates water, sodium, pH, and electrolyte levels along with blood pressure. Addison's disease can affect all age groups and genders equally; it can sometimes be life threatening. It can be caused by tuberculosis, fungal infections, cancer, and complications from AIDS. It can also be caused by a faulty autoimmune reaction that causes the body's immune system to attack and destroy the cells in the adrenal cortex. Treatment includes synthetic corticosteroids which replace the hormones that are not being produced by the adrenal cortex. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Addison%27s+Disease
It is a condition that is characterized by a difficulty in coping and adjustment to an environmental or situational stressor such as a major life event. Stress response syndrome shares many of the symptoms of major depression but is different in that it is caused by a situational stressor. There is a specific reason it is occurring instead of just generalized symptoms.

Common examples of stressors that can cause adjustment disorder include the death of a loved one, divorce/breakups, and employment changes such as losing a job. Being a victim of a crime, accident, natural disaster, or injury can also elicit stress response syndrome. Life changes such as marriage, having a baby, moving, and retirement can also be responsible. Symptoms include hopelessness, despair, loss of interest and enjoyment in previously like activities, withdrawal, anxiety, crying, behavioral changes, destructive behaviors, and fatigue. Stress response syndrome is very common and can affect anyone.

Treatment is typically therapy, support groups, medication, or a combination of these three options. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adjustment+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Age+Affects
We know that there are three stages to memory; encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Initially, all information is encoded into short-term memory and stored. Depending on the type of information involved these memories can be transferred into permanent memory. As we grow older we have a great many more demands on our attention and memory and this dilutes our ability to remember details. It wouldn't be efficient for our brain to store ALL of our memories permanently. So along the way we tend to lose some of the inconsequential memories, such as what you had for breakfast on the third Wednesday of July three years ago. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Age+Associated+Memory+Impairment
With modern medical technology and knowledge many of these symptoms can be reduced and ameliorated in the attempt to provided continued health and independence. People are living longer and healthier lives than any other time in history and research into aging and its effects has had much to do with that. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aginghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcohol+Use+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcohol+Withdrawal+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Allied+Health+Professions
For instance, a researcher might look for a comparison between students with diagnosed ADHD and academic success in math class. These types of experiments can result in either a positive or negative correlation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Analogue
For example, Freud's three levels of consciousness are often described as an iceberg - the visible and tangible part (consciousness) is the part of the iceberg above the water, the subconscious is just below the water where you can still see it a bit, and the unconscious is the deeply submerged part of the iceberg. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Analogy
The first meaning refers to the process of evaluating written materials and research data to check for accuracy and for the use of appropriate methodology. Data analysis is when the information collected in a research study is measured and tested in order to glean results.

The second meaning is associated the psychoanalytic school of psychiatry. In this usage analysis is the long-term treatment method used in classical psychoanalysis. Traditionally it involves the client reclining on a couch out of direct view of the analyst. The patient then speaks from a stream of consciousness about feelings, relationships, memories, dreams, fantasies, and impressions. This method allows the analyst to view the patient's life from their own point of view and to identify patterns of behavior, responses, and reactions as well as to give the patient insight into their own lives by vocalizing events and feelings from their past. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Analysis
These interventions are based on well-researched principles of behaviorism and learning.

They are carefully measured to evaluate the success of the intervention.

For example, you are working with a intellectually-handicapped individual who has poor table manners. First, you identify the specific mannerism to change. For instance, talking with their mouth full. A goal would then be established to teach this person to chew and swallow before talking. You would take a baseline score of the behavior, apply the training intervention, and the remeasure to see how much improvement is made. Applied behavioral analysis is shown to be very effective in treatment of addiction, behavioral issues, and autism spectrum disorders. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Applied+Behavioral+Analysis
To be labeled atypical does not designate that the symptoms being seen are uncommon or rare, mainly that they do not conform to formally recognized conditions or syndromes.

For instance, atypical depression presents with the normal depressive symptoms such as sadness, lack of energy, and a lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities. Atypical depression is likely to also present with increased appetite/significant weight gain, hypersomnia, heaviness in the limbs as well as a tendency to react positively to good news or happy occasions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Atypical
This type of depression can also share the symptoms of melancholic depression such as increased appetite/weight gain, hypersomnia, and heavy sensations in the limbs - any of which can cause impairment in a person's ability to function in the world in areas such as employment, social settings, or relationships. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Atypical+Depression
In a psychological diagnosis "atypical" refers to symptoms that are recognized as part of mental illnesses yet do not rise to the level needed for diagnosis as part of recognized syndromes or do not respond to outside stimuli in the manner most common to a syndrome. To be labeled atypical does not designate that the symptoms being seen are uncommon or rare, mainly that they do not conform to formally recognized conditions or syndromes. Psychotic symptoms are also seen as part of multiple physical, neurological, psychiatric or substance related disorders.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Atypical+Psychosis
This diagnosis is widely known but is rarely actually diagnosed due to lack of specific diagnostic criteria. While a major symptom of alcohol-related dementia is a global decline in functioning it has other specific symptoms. Some victims present with frontal lobe damage that causes disinhibition, loss of executive skills (such as planning), and a lack of regard for consequences. Other victims show the symptoms of Korsakoff's syndrome; destruction of some areas of the brain that causes a loss of short-term memory. These symptoms show permanent damage to the brain that cannot be treated or reversed.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcohol-Related+Dementia+%28ARD%29Stanley Milgram did a famous psychological study on obedience to authority figures in which most participants were willing to obey an authority figure even when they were being instructed to do something that they believed was morally wrong and harmful. The participants frequently went against their moral judgement when encouraged to do so by the authority figures in the experiments. The Milgram experiment was groundbreaking in its revelations of how authority figures can influence their subordinates into doing things they normally wouldn't do on their own. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Authority+Figurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcohol%2C+Drug+Abuse%2C+And+Mental+Health+Administration+%28ADAMHA%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcohol+Amnestic+Disorder+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcoholics+Anonymous+%28AA%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcoholic+Hallucinosis+
These symptoms include cravings, shaking, heart palpitations, nausea/vomiting, anxiety, agitation, and restlessness. This happens when the body becomes so accustomed to alcohol intake that the body adapts to the high usage to the degree that it comes to "need" this infusion of alcohol to function normally. This condition is associated with alcoholism and in severe cases needs medical intervention to manage the symptoms.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcohol+Dependence+
This type of drinking is essentially an addiction like any other abusable substance. There are people who drink heavily and daily, yet continue to function in society. These are sometimes referred to functional alcoholics while others are completely taken over by alcohol use and are unable to function. If a substance is interfering with employment, relationships (family, friends, or romantic), and health then it can be surmised that the substance is being abused.

Another form of alcohol abuse is "binge-drinking" where a person will periodically drink to excess with periods of sobriety in between times. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcohol+Abusehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alateenhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Al-Anonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ailurophobia
It is believed that ADC occurs at a time when the body is vulnerable but that it also is a consequence of HIV and not from exposure to another infection. ADC is typically diagnosed using neuro-imaging such as CAT scans or by testing the cerebrospinal fluid in the brain. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AIDS+Dementia+Complex+%28ADC%29+ that elicits feelings of unease, discomfort, and distress. Some individuals experiencing a state of agitation may exhibit hostility and uncooperativeness - this along with poor impulse control can sometimes lead to violent behavior against themselves or other people. Some antipsychotic medications can induce psychomotor agitation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agitationdepression.

Restlessness, nervousness, motor agitation, irritability, and excitement are combined with symptoms of depression. Because this is a combination of both high arousal and depressive feelings there is an increased risk of self-injury and suicide. Sometimes the agitation can have physical manifestations such as fidgeting, pacing, or the wringing hands. Typically medications are used to control these symptoms along with therapy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agitated+Depression
This deficiency causes difficulties with the limbic system of the brain including the medial thalamus and mammillary bodies of the posterior hypothalamus. Alcohol-induced persisting amnesic disorder is also a cause of generalized cerebral atrophy. This lack of nutrients also causes deficits in declarative memory (explicit memories of information, facts, and events that can be consciously remembered) in most patients, but leaves implicit memories such as spatial, verbal, and procedural memory functioning intact. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcohol-Induced+Persisting+Amnesic+Disorderfetal alcohol syndrome in children. Therapy, support groups (such as Alcoholics Anonymous), and medications are used to treat alcoholism with successful treatment plans being different among varying individuals. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alcoholism
An example of alexia is pure alexia which is also known as word blindness. It is characterized in that sufferers can write but not read. Looking at a page of words the person cannot read or comprehend the words, even words that they themselves have written!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alexia
Examples are avoidance of movement or moving things (for fear of injury), workplace fears (such as being injured by equipment or tools), or social interactions (like sports or activity for fear of being injured). Their fears of pain or discomfort disrupt and inhibit algophobics lives and don't allow them to live normally. Algophobia sometimes is a result of experiencing a traumatic event.

For an algophobic, when faced with a normal situation that might be painful or discomforting (a dental checkup for example) they experience anxiety symptoms such as increased heart rate, breathing issues, shaking, panic, and avoidance. Behavioral therapy has been shown to be highly effective in the treatment of algophobia. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Algophobia
It proposes a definition of criminal insanity and is essentially what is used in trials for the insanity defense.

For example, imagine a schizophrenic person off their meds having extreme delusions and hallucinations and during this state they destroy a few mailboxes. Although this is a federal offense, the individual didn't know at the time what they were doing and what the consequences of the behavior was due to their extreme mental agitation and the effects of their disease. The ALI rule proposes that this person shouldn't be held criminally responsible for their behavior as they did not know what they were doing was wrong. There are misconceptions about the insanity defense - television would have you believe that it is very common and very easy to 'get off' criminal charges using this method. This is untrue with very few cases using the insanity defense (less than 1%) and individuals who use it frequently spend as much time (if not more) in mental facilities as they would in jail. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=American+Law+Institute+Rulehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alienationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alienist
Normally, when a person's oxygen level is low (or their carbon dioxide level is high) the brain will signal the body to breathe more quickly or deeply to correct the imbalance but when alveolar hypoventilation syndrome is present that doesn't happen. Causes of this condition are generally unknown but can have a genetic component. It most commonly appears in men between 20 and 50 years of age. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alveolar+Hypoventilation+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alkaloid
For instance, an ambiguous picture can be designed in such a way that there are two or possible images. An ambiguous statement is a statement that can be interpreted in more than one way, such as you might find in a joke. One of these is a question such as "How do you get down from an elephant?" The answer -- " You don't get down from an elephant, you get down from a duck." This bad joke is possible because it has different meanings depending on whether it is being used as a noun or a verb and the ambiguity in this is what makes the joke humorous.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ambiguoushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AmentiaAmphetamines are a class of psychoactive drugs that increase energy, helps the user to resist sleep and remain alert for extended periods of time, and can cause weight loss. Medically, they have been used for the treatment of narcolepsy, obesity, hay fever, orthostatic hypotension, attentional disorders, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, alcoholism, and migraine headaches. However, the "reinforcing" or pleasurable effects of amphetamine drugs were quickly discovered and the misuse of medicinal amphetamines has been known for decades. There are many types of amphetamines currently on the market medically, and others, such as methamphetamine are cooked up in illegal "meth labs." ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amphetamine
The general categories of anesthesia are "general" anesthesia that renders a patient unconscious, "local" anesthesia that deadens skin sensations, and "sedation" that causes physical relaxation and causes amnesia.

Anesthesia refers to the use of medications that cause an individual to sleep or be unconscious during medical procedures (as during surgery) or to deaden pain responses during procedures (as in dentistry). Lastly, there is sedation that causes relaxation in the patient and the minimizing of pain responses.

An anesthesiologist uses a combination of medications that are used induce unconsciousness, deaden pain responses, cause paralysis, and induce amnesia as is appropriate to the operation or procedure that is being carried out. , ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AnesthesiaPsychophysiological illnesses include hypertension, headaches, heart disease, and stomach problems such as ulcers. The anger-in theory proposes that psychophysiological sickness is due to the 'bottling up' and non-release of anger related emotions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anger-In+Theory
Typically this will be a highly specific fear of one species and may or may not be related to a prior negative experience. Common animal phobias are fears of snakes, spiders, and cats although any species is fair game for this phobia. Depending on the type of animal involved, and the victim's lifestyle, these types of phobias can range from presenting little trouble to being completely debilitating.

Phobias can be treated through exposure to the fear object and therapy aimed at anxiety reduction.

For instance, a person who has an extreme and debilitating fear of spiders may be presented with photos and videos of spiders until their anxiety at these stimuli is reduced. Eventually they may be exposed to real (harmless!) spiders in a controlled setting in order to alleviate the discomfort they feel when they encounter any eight-legged enemies in real life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Animal+Phobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxiety+Neurosis
The class C disorders are Avoidant, Dependent, and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders.

In anxious-fearful personality disorder these three personality disorders all present with a high level of anxiety. Clients whose issues fall into this classification share relationship problems typically either a paralyzing fear of being in a relationship or the desperate need to be in a relationship to the point of immediately jumping into new relationships when one ends. The third of these class-C disorders is obsessive-compulsive disorder that seeks to soothe anxiety through the use of ritualistic behavior.

These disorders are generally treated with a combination of therapy and anti-anxiety medications.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxious-Fearful+Personality+Disorder
This isn't true - many individuals experience both depression (such as sadness, lack of interest, negativity, inactivity) and anxiety (excessive worrying, racing thoughts, fear, insomnia). Sufferers of MADD have a fairly equal representation of both types of symptoms; neither the anxiety or depressive symptoms are dominant.

Treatment of MADD involves therapies and medications that treat both depression and anxiety symptoms such as therapy and medications such as selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mixed+Anxiety+And+Depressive+Disorder+%28MADD%29
It was also used to sort out recruits who showed psychopathology or "feeble-mindedness" (an old catch-all phrase that could mean any serious intellectual/psychological/behavioral abnormalities). It was designed to measure the same basic parameters as the Army Alpha (hyperlink?) test; ability to serve, trainability, basic aptitudes, and leadership potential without depending on written materials.

This test was generally administered to 100-200 recipients at a time.over a 50-60 minute time period. Discontinued after WWI, it, along with Army Alpha, is still considered an archetype for future methods of cognitive testing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Army+Betahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Authoritarian+Personalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoidance+Disorder
For example, it is through "cognition" that a person can look at a problem and find a solution through their own mental processes and existing knowledge. This is how the Wright brothers took what they knew about mechanical processes and and examination of the physics of flight (through observing bird flight) and used this combination of information to create the first airplane through observation, storing previous knowledge, retrieving and combining this information, making deductions, and using trial and error to make conclusions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Processes
Developmental delays can include both mental and physical delays that could be caused by physiological problems or by environmental difficulties such as premature birth, inadequate nutrition, lack of physical or intellectual stimulation, or lack of appropriate medical care.

For example, a feral child might be chronologically eight years old but have the behaviors and language skills of a three year old child. Therefore, their developmental age would be three years old. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Developmental+Age
This connectionism draws together common threads of thought, action, and desired outcomes from these many fields. In the human mind connectionism refers to the ability to make intellectual connections between different, and sometimes seemingly unconnected, areas of knowledge. This is referred to as neural networking.

For instance, a public health official finding connections between a farmer's water supply in rural south America and a food poisoning outbreak in the U.S.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Connectionismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fissures
For example, an alloplast can be used to replace missing parts of bone from severe fractures or damage to bones. Alloplasts are used to help the bones set and heal correctly. Examples are metallic plates or artificial joints.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alloplasthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alpha+Rhythm
Altruism is social behavior that means doing good for the sake of others. Altruistic suicide was a concept first identified by Emile Durkheim and is when a person commits suicide in order to benefit others. Altruistic suicide is sometimes viewed as a courageous act such as self-sacrifice during times of war.

For example, a soldier jumping on a grenade in order to save others yet kills him would be a form of altruistic suicide. Sometimes individuals will commit altruistic suicide when they are facing a terminal illness because they believe it will be better for their friends and family. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Altruistic+Suicide
Primary amenorrhea is when a girl hasn't started menstruating before the ages of 15-16. There might not be any concern but a doctor should be consulted just in case there is an underlying reason for the delay.

Secondary amenorrhea is when menstruation isn't occurring in a woman in the absence of pregnancy, lactation, menopause, or birth control medications that stop periods. There can be several causes of amenorrhea including pregnancy, reproductive organ issues, hormonal issues, and birth control medication side effects.

Menstruation can also cease in women who have a shortage of body fat (this effects some female athletes as well as women suffering from anorexia). In order to have regular menstruation, the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, ovaries, and uterus must all be functioning properly. Bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa can also cause amenorrhea in individuals. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amenorrheahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amimia
Amnesias are amnestic disorders.

Retrograde amnesia is a condition in which the sufferer cannot remember events before the amnestic disorder began. Anterograde amnesia sufferers can remember events from their past but cannot retain new knowledge or information after the onset of the amnestic disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amnestic+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amniocentisis
Amok is similar to the 'mal de pelea' condition in Puerto Rico. Amok typically is brought on by feelings of desperation, feelings of jealousy, or humiliation. This condition is frequently violent with individuals assaulting or even murdering others and sometimes results in suicide.

A typical example of amok would be an individual brooding silently with no previous indications of violence and then suddenly lash out in frenzied outbursts at the other people around them in a crowded area, perhaps with a weapon. Sometimes this ends with the individual being murdered or committing suicide. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amok
The symptoms of this progressively destructive disease are muscle stiffness, muscular twitching, weakness due to muscular deterioration that leads to problems with speaking, swallowing and breathing. The disease progresses through the death of neurons that control voluntary activity.

Although an estimated 5-10% of cases are due to genetic factors, the other 90-95% are the result of unknown causes. Normally the disease first appears between ages 50 and 60, with a survival rate of 3-4 years after the first appearance of symptoms. There is currently no cure.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amyotrophic+Lateral+Sclerosis+%28ALS%29
This term can be used for different types of analysts. In psychology analyst is sometimes used to refer to a psychoanalyst which is a person who practices Freudian psychoanalytical therapy. A research analyst in psychology and other sciences is someone who collects and studies data, runs statistical tests, and draws conclusions from the results in order to determine many different facts of scientific thought. An example of this is market or social research. A behavior analyst is a person who studies behaviors in order to help assess and treat behavioral problems. They can help people to curb bad behaviors and assess how the environment contributes to behavioral problems. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Analysthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anamnesis
There are three main categories of ancillary care service: diagnostic, therapeutic, and custodial.

Diagnostic ancillary care includes laboratory and genetic testing, x-rays, and diagnostic imaging like a CAT scan.

Therapeutic ancillary care includes rehabilitation, physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, massage, and chiropractic care.

Custodial ancillary care includes long-term care facilities, hospice, and nursing facilities. So if you go to the doctor with a broken bone they will most likely use a diagnostic ancillary care professional to give you an x-ray and possibly a therapeutic ancillary care physical therapist to help your bone heal properly and restore range of motion.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ancillary+Carehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Angina+Pectorishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Animal+Type+Phobiashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anniversary+Reaction
An example used in the literature regarding anomie is the Industrial Revolution which caused many individuals to seek egoist ends that only benefit themselves instead of the greater good of their community and species. Strain theory uses the concept of anomie to explain why some criminal behavior occurs. This theory proposes that society pressures individuals to achieve certain societal and cultural goals (for example, the "American Dream" with the big house and three car garage). But standing in the way of these goals are societal limitations that stop people from attaining that goal such as unfair economic policies, overpopulation, and discrimination. This leads to a state of anomie which leads to some individuals committing crimes and other ethical behaviors in order to reach the goals. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anomie
Anorgasmia is more common in women than in men and can have many different causes such as trauma to sexual organs, complications from surgery or childbirth, alcohol or drug use, or diseases such as multiple sclerosis. It can also be caused by psychological conditions such as anxiety, depression, or addiction to drugs or alcohol. Oftentimes a temporary condition, if it becomes a chronic condition it should be discussed with a medical and/or mental health professional to determine any underlying causes and find treatment for the condition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anorgasmiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anosmiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antabuse
Subjects include religion, ritual practices, social relationships, medical practices, and explanations of world events.

For example, in some cultures it is believed that seizures are caused by spirits taking over the persons body. This is viewed as a spiritual and religious experience. In Western medical circles, these seizures are explained by neural issues such as epilepsy and are viewed through a scientific lens. The examination and study of this topic would fall under the heading of psychological anthropology. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychological+Anthropology+acetylcholine (ACh) and its effects in the brain. Anticholinergic agents are used to treat a wide range of disorders and issues including Parkinson's Disease, asthma, anxiety, sleep disorders like insomnia, depression, gastrointestinal issues like diarrhea, muscular spasms, motion sickness, poisoning, and high blood pressure. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anticholinergic
These are called dopaminergic antiparkinson agents and they work by stimulating the release of dopamine in the brain or by imitating dopamine so that he body treats it as such. Examples of dopaminergic antiparkinson agents are L-DOPA or levodopa and deprenyl. Another class of antiparkinson medications are anticholinergic antiparkinson agents which work by reducing acetylcholine. Examples of anticholinergic antiparkinson agents include orphenadrine, procyclidin, and trihexyphenidyl. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antiparkinson+Medicationshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxiety+State
Examples of anxiolytic medications include Xanax and Valium. Anxiolytics are not only medications. Light therapy is also sometimes effective in the treatment of anxiety. Alcohol, while feeling like an anxiolytic at first, can later become an anxiogenic (anxiety causing) substance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxiolytichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apathyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apneahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apoplexy
For example, a perception would be seeing a dog and thinking "There is a dog." Apperception would be seeing a dog and thinking "That dog looks like my friend Larry's dog." ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apperception
The technique is practiced by tensing the body muscles for 10-15 seconds until your body is starting to feel warm. Then let your muscles relax for 20-30 seconds. Repeat this process 3-5 times. If you practice this over time it can be used when coming into contact with blood or a needle. It can then be used as a method to alleviate stress and possible unconsciousness. This can also be used as a means of relieving stress in general. Try it when you're stressed and sitting - like when writing a paper or studying for an exam!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Applied+Tension+Technique
For example, the approach gradient of a mouse could be measured by it's heart rate and level of arousal as it nears a piece of food in a previously run maze. The mouse knows it is nearing food and is essentially getting more exited about it as it approaches. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Approach+Gradientacalculia is an acquired disability and is often the result of brain injuries. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Arithmetic+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Army+Alphahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Articulation+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ascriptive+Responsibilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Asocialityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Assertivenessdeclarative memory, it is the memory function involved with making and remembering associations.

An example would be learning a new coworkers name. The next day when you greet them by name you are using an associative memory. Another example would be walking past a bar and remembering a friend that you had met there for the first time. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Associative+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Asylum
Many of the symptoms overlap with panic disorder but there are factors that make it a separate condition. One is that ataque de nervios is typically associated with a stressful life event or a familial situation such as death or divorce. Unlike panic disorders, fear is not a component of ataque de nervios and the sufferers typically do not remember the attack. Symptoms of ataque de nervios include shouting, fainting, crying, and aggressive behaviors. Ataque de nervios is listed in the DSM as a culturerelated disorders.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ataque+De+Nervios
For the Epicureans this meant the state of ideal happiness derived from living well and avoiding "vexations" such as politics and unpleasant people and promoted the cultivation of personal virtues. To the Pyrrhonnists it meant living in a life of absolute balance in which no one thing is better than any other object. To the Stoics, ataraxia was not a state to be actively pursued but a consequence of the living of a virtuous life.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ataraxiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditory+Hallucination
Autistic fantasy is a defense mechanism that uses daydreaming and fantastical thinking as a method for coping with stress. It may replace real social interactions and behaviors with fantasies and daydreams which is not healthy.

For example, a student who is repeatedly bullied at school may retreat into a fantasy world based on their favorite movie. They spend their time in this fantasy world and may begin to suffer social problems (due to not spending time with friends) and their school work may begin to suffer as well. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autistic+Fantasy
The most common example is masturbation which is sexual stimulation that a person gives themselves. Autoeroticism was used in the past to describe the sexual arousal that occurred during sleep which is a normal occurrence during some sleep stages but this usage of the term has fallen out of favor. Sometimes autoeroticism is used in regards to individuals who are sexually aroused by their own body. Also referred to as autosexuals, these individuals are aroused by themselves and may engage in 'mirror sex' or masturbate to photographs of themselves. This differs from the common form of masturbation in which a person is thinking of another person or their sexual fantasies. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autoeroticismautonomic nervous system is too sensitive and too easily aroused. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is responsible for the regulation of automatic processes in our body: heart rate, breathing, digestion, and the 'fight or flight' response to name a few. Autonomic lability is when the ANS is too reactive and is aroused too easily. Causes of this include infection, genetics, brain injury, pregnancy, and Parkinson's disease. Research has also shown a relationship between anxiety and autonomic lability. This could be a factor in why people develop anxiety and panic disorders. If a person has autonomic lability they have a high reactivity to situational stimuli which increases the severity of threat perception. This increase in heart rate, breathing, and fear response could be a component of how panic and anxiety issues develop. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autonomic+Lability
For example, if a person needs a skin graft (the replacement of damaged skin) after an injury or burn sometimes skin is taken from other undamaged parts of their body to replace the damaged area. In psychology, autoplastic adaptation is a psychoanalytical concept in which a person uses self adjustment or alteration of their behaviors as a reaction to a situation or environment. 'Auto' means done by the self while 'plastic' refers to something that can be changed. Autoplastic adaptation is changing oneself when confronted by a problem or stressful situation. This is in contrast with alloplastic adaptation which is when the individual attempts to change the environment or situation. So autoplastic is adapting yourself to a situation while alloplastic is adapting the situation to yourself and your needs.

An example of autoplastic adaptation is Stockholm syndrome which is when kidnapping victims and hostages feel sympathy and bond with their captors. The captives change their behaviors and reactions in order to cope with the situation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autoplastic
An example of this would be conditioning a rat to move from one part of a cage to another after hearing a bell ring. The bell ring (the neutral stimulus) is presented to the rat immediately before it feels an electrical shock. The rat can avoid the shock if it moves to another part of the cage. Through avoidance conditioning the rat will eventually learn to move to the non-shock area of the cage as soon as it hears the bell. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoidance+Conditioning
For example, the avoidance gradient could be seen in a rat's increase in anxiety, fear response, and desire to hide as it is exposed to a previous unpleasant stimulus like an electric shock. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoidance+Gradient
For example, in a lab a mouse hears a tone which is followed by a non-harmful but unpleasant shock. This shock is the unpleasant stimulus. The mouse can escape the shock by running through a little door. Eventually the mouse will learn to use the door once it hears the tone avoiding the electric shock altogether. This is avoidance learning- the mouse has learned how to avoid the unpleasant stimulus. A human example would be a person who gets an allergic reaction from eating a certain food a few times. Eventually they learn to avoid that food and not eat it at all. This is avoidance learning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoidance+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoidant+Personalityschizophrenia and is the lack of ability to start, engage in, and complete tasks that are goal-based. Remember, in schizophrenia negative doesn't mean bad - it means that something is lacking or not there that is supposed to be.

For example, flat affect is another negative symptom and is when there is no emotional response in a person when there should be. A positive symptom in schizophrenia is when something is there that shouldn't be such as a delusion or a hallucination.

Examples of avolition include not being able to take a shower and get dressed, clean a room, or perform school or work activities. This symptom of schizophrenia often is difficult to deal with for friends and loved ones and may affect the sufferer's social and occupational life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avolition
There are different ways to do this. A person could simply imagine themselves in a social setting and picture themselves performing behaviors and responding appropriately. Other methods include role playing or talking about future behaviors and responses with another person. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Rehearsalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Client
For instance, an overweight client realizes that the root cause of the problem is in their lifestyle choices and how they react by overeating when confronted by emotional stressors. Through work with a therapist, this client can learn to avoid emotional triggers that lead to overeating and to find more motivation to exercise. This style of therapy has also proved very helpful in the treatment of anxiety and depression.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Behavior+Modification
For example, when creating a product it is important to consider the cultural perspective of the different groups of people who may purchase it. The two fingered 'peace sign' in the United States is actually an offensive gesture in England, Ireland, and Australia. So an advertising executive making ads for a US company which will air in Britain would be wise to adopt a cultural perspective for the group and not show people giving the American peace sign in their ad!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cultural+Perspective
For example, humans naturally dislike and fear spiders and snakes. Using an evolutionary perspective, this is because our ancestors learned that these creatures are frequently poisonous and may be deadly. Likewise, humans have a natural fear of large carnivorous animals and know instinctively to stay away from them. The humans who developed a fear for these creatures were evolutionarily more successful because they avoided these harmful organisms and more of them survived than their counterparts who did not learn to fear harmful animals. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evolutionary+Perspective
Later, in collaboration with Freud and Sándor Ferenczi he developed the concept of autoplastic adaptation where it was proposed that when presented with a choice a person can choose one of two ways to react. Autoplastic adaptations are situations in which a person attempts to change themselves.The other side is called alloplastic adaptation and is when a person attempts to change the world around them. Between the 1930s and 1950s he was one of many psychological practictioners that actively sought methods to shorten the course of therapy while retaining the efficiency of longer courses of therapy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Franz+Alexanderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identification+And+Recognition
For instance, if a person is watching a magician perform it can truly appear that the magician is doing things that are impossible. Illusions occur when a situation distorts a person's capacity for depth and motion perception and perceptual constancy.

For example, when I was younger I was taken to an attraction at an amusement park that was called the "Dutchman's Shack." This was a room that was constructed in such a way, with sloping floors and tilted walls, That there was actually the appearance of water of running uphill. This was an example of how the senses can be tricked when it tries to apply the rules of normal reality to a distorted situation.

Another example of a distorted room is the Ames room in which distorted dimensions create an optical illusion. Additionally, various processes of brain pathology can cause a person to experience "hallucinations" that are illusions created by faulty connections within the brain. These can be the sensations of seeing things that don't exist such as hearing voices and smelling or tasting substances that are not present in the environment.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusion
Physiologically, this is a result of an interaction of serotonin, the amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex. Impulsivity itself is frequently seen as a side-effect of several disorders such as ADHD, substance use disorders, bipolar disorder, antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy, and borderline personality disorder. Impulsive aggression is a primary symptom of Intermittent Explosive Disorder, a dangerous condition that causes an individual to suddenly react with aggression and rage for little or no obvious reason.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Impulsive+Aggressionreliability measurement in which items on a test are correlated in order to determine how well they measure the same construct or concept. Reliability shows how consistent a test or measurement is; "Is it accurately measuring a concept after repeated testing?"

Internal consistency is a check to ensure all of the test items are measuring the concept they are supposed to be measuring.

For example, to test the internal consistency of a test a teacher may include two different questions that measure the same concept. If the student gets both questions correct or both wrong then the internal consistency of the test could be said to be good - the student understands the concept if they got both questions right and doesn't understand the concept if they got both wrong. If the student gets one question right and one wrong then the internal consistency is in question. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+Consistency
An example of language production at its base is simple. Picture a person thinking of an apple, then using their mouth to physically sound out the word 'apple', then another person hearing this and perceiving the sounds that make up the concept of 'apple', then they have the mental representation of the apple. This is the process of language production. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Language+Productionphonemes, the building blocks of language) and the syntax of speech. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Language-Making+Capacity+%28LMC%29Gestalt psychology and is the tendency for people to perceive items moving in the same direction as being more closely related than objects that are moving in different directions or are immobile.

Here's a way to picture the law of common fate - imagine you are driving down a busy highway with many other cars. When heading in the same direction the vehicles have the perception of being related to one another and a common moving mass. When something is contrasted or against the law of common fate (such as a car headed the wrong way, one weaving and swerving erratically, or an immobile broken down car) we immediately perceive this dissonance as it seems out of place. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Law+Of+Common+FateGestalt psychology and states that objects that are close to each other have the tendency to be grouped together. One of the Gestalt laws of perceptual organization, the law of proximity proposes that even objects that are vastly different from one another are mentally grouped together if they are near each other (close in proximity). For example, when you look at this:

AAAA BBBB CCCC

You perceptually group the As, Bs, and Cs together with each other. This is the law of proximity. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Law+Of+Proximity
The first is one of Aristotle's laws of association and the law of similarity proposes that when two things are alike the thought of one will trigger the thought of the other. For example, when we think of a beach ball we might visualize a volleyball as well because they are both balls that are thrown around when at the beach.

A second conceptualization of the law of similarity is in Gestalt psychology. It states that the law of similarity is the tendency to perceptually group similar items and objects together. Gestalt psychology focuses on how we perceive individual items as a whole. To illustrate the law of similarity, look at the grouping of items below:

AAAAA BBBBB CCCCC

If asked to describe this most people would say there are three rows of letters instead of five columns of letters. This is because of the law of similarity - individuals are more likely to group the similar items together. It is a grouping based on the likeness between objects.

Another example could be seen in how a person organizes their clothing. It is more common that a person would put their pants and shorts in the same drawer rather than pants/shirts and shorts/socks. Pants and shorts are more likely to be grouped together because they are more similar to each other. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Law+Of+Similarity
When an organism achieves the capability to do a particular behavior or action it may remain latent or unused for a time before it is actually performed. Learning isn't performance - it is turning the learning into a learned behavior that you actually perform that is performance.

For example, imagine an individual who has never played basketball before. They watch a basketball game on television and learn the main concept of the game which is getting the ball into the hoop. This behavior is now learned but remains latent until the person actually plays basketball for the first time and shoots the ball into the hoop. The learning-performance distinction show the difference between learning (watching the basketball game and grasping the concept of the behavior) and performance (actually performing the behavior). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learning-Performance+Distinctionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Life+Change+Unit+%28LCU%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Loudnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pain
Patients are injected with a substance that has radioactive tracers that make the PET machine able to see how organs are working and if anything is wrong. PET scans can measure things like blood flow, glucose metabolism, and oxygen levels. A common use of PET scans is in screening cancer patients for signs of metastasis (the cancer spreading to other organs) but it can also check for other diseases like heart disease, brain disorders, and issues with the nervous system.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PET+Scan
Remember, in psychological research the terms "positive" and "negative" are used somewhat differently that they are in everyday speech. "Positive" refers to a reaction given in response to a stimulus, while "negative" refers to a lack of reaction to stimulus. Therefore a "positive" punishment refers to an active response (like an electrical shock) whereas a "negative" punishment would be withholding something from the organism (like not presenting food). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Punishmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychological+Autopsy
Freud believed that specific types of maladaptive behavior could be traced to failures to resolve the ego conflicts at one of the five stages of sexual development that he had posited. These stages (known as the oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital phases) occur at predictable periods of life and are based on the anatomical part that is most important to that stage.

For example, the oral stage (birth to 1 year) is when the primary source of physical pleasure is the mouth due to the desire to breast feed and the habit of using the mouth to explore the world.

An example would be a failure to resolve a conflict during the oral stage could create an immature personality due to having received too much or too little gratification at that stage of life. For instance, it has been hypothesized that under this theory that smoking is a behavior related to the oral stage of development.

Likewise, Freud believed that many other difficulties could be traced to problems during the other four of these phases.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychopathological+Functioning
For instance, a young mother might develop frequent, severe, headaches and deduce that she must have a brain tumor. However, following a doctor's exam the headaches are diagnosed as being stress-related.

However, it must be noted that as medical knowledge has grown it is being learned that diseases that were previously believed to have been purely stress-related are being found to have physiological components also. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychosomatic+Disorders
Racism can also include physical violence against members of the targeted group.

This pattern of behavior has existed throughout history and has caused many unfortunate events ranging from social inequality to slavery, racial warfare and genocide.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Racism
When these reward contingencies are lost, either through the loss of a job or the inability to engage in previously rewarding activities depression can be a result. As we know from classical conditioning, the loss of rewards for positive behavior leads to eventual extinction of behaviors. The extinction of a large repertoire of behaviors can lead to lack of responsiveness and and emotional/intellectual arousal and thus lead into depression.

In humans, this frequently occurs when a person reaches retirement age and finds themselves at home without the stimulation of work. When a person retires, and has no hobbies or other interests to fall back on, they can frequently suffer from this type of depression. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reinforcement+Contingency+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lateral+Geniculate+Nucleus+%28LGN%29
An example of this would be an individual who sees the number 5 as being the color blue (which is called grapheme-color synesthesia). Synesthesia is described in neurobiology as 'crossed wires' - neurons that are associated with one sense are perhaps located in or near another neuronal area devoted to another sense.

Synesthetes perceive a stimulus and the crossed wiring makes multiple senses react to the stimulus. Individuals who experience this neural phenomenon describe being able to 'hear colors' or 'taste shapes' for example. Not much is known about the etiology of synesthesia but some evidence suggests that it can sometimes be hereditary and that it is more common in females than in males. Some research has suggested that synesthesia may be caused by stronger neural connections between certain parts of the brain. Synesthesia is commonly a durable condition that people have for their entire lives but in some cases acquired synesthesia can be caused by brain injury, brain disease, or stroke. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synesthesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Million+Clinical+Multiaxial+Inventory+%28MCMI%29
These types of studies can focus on many different aspects of family: parenting, sibling relationships, how families interact amongst themselves, how families interact with outside entities, and parent-child relationships. Unlike "twin studies" that look at how genetics influence personality and lifestyles, also known as "nature vs. nurture," family studies do not generally look at how shared genetics amongst siblings affect growth and relationships.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+Studieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Optic+Disknormal distribution, a negatively skewed distribution will show smaller points farther away from the mean (on the left-hand side of the graph) than the larger numbers on the right side of the graph. Negatively skewed distribution is a statistical term frequently used in statistics and probability distributions to describe how scores or data are represented.

For example, a negatively skewed distribution would be expected if a teacher were to give an 8th grade achievement test to a classroom of 3rd graders. Some of the students might be able to answer some of the questions but most would fail the quiz therefore leading to a serious skew on the left side of the mean.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Probability+Distribution
Possible causes for sexual aversion disorder include past sexual abuse or trauma such as rape, sexual identity issues, irrational fears of pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections, and influence from environmental influences like parents or culture. Therapy is the best and most common treatment for sexual aversion disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Aversion+Disorder
Sexual dysfunctions such as erectile dysfunction and sexual arousal disorder are considered to be sexual disorders. Paraphilias such as pedophilia are also considered sexual disorders. Other examples include hypoactive sexual desire disorder and sexual aversion disorder.

It is important to note that some normal and healthy sexual behaviors are considered to be deviant and sexual disorders by some people when in actuality they do not meet the criteria. For example, some may consider an individual with an unusual fetish to be suffering (masochism) from a sexual disorder. But if this sexual behavior is not harmful to other people and does not cause distress or harm to the individual then it isn't considered a sexual disorder.

Sexual disorders are treated using therapy or medication dependent on what type of condition it is. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Disorders
In research, randomization is essential to achieve balance in the effects (and possible risk factors in clinical trials) the participants are exposed to in each condition. Participant assignments are sequenced by using 'blocks'. Block randomization is a common method used to reduce the likelihood of bias and have the same number of participants for every condition group. This is especially useful if the sample size is small. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Block+Randomizationgeneral adaptation syndrome (GAS). GAS proposes that our bodies have an automatic, natural, and adaptive response to stress.

This response is comprised of three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

The exhaustion stage can result in physical or mental breakdowns due to the body's response to the stressor. During the resistance stage the body is working hard. Eventually the stress response cannot continue and the exhaustion stage sets in. This can lead to physical problems, health issues, mental disturbances, and even death. Different factors influence how an individual deals with stress including general coping and adaptive skills, health, inborn traits, and age. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exhaustion+Stage and is the first stage of stress response. Developed by Hans Selye, GAS proposes that our bodies have a natural, automatic, and adaptive response to stress that is composed of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for this reaction to a stressful stimulus. The alarm reaction stage is the 'fight or flight' and is characterized by a release of adrenaline that causes increased heart rate, faster breathing, perspiration, and dilated pupils.

It's the feeling that you would get if you were walking down a trail and suddenly realized you were about to step on a big snake!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alarm+Reactionvalidity which is the degree to which a test is measuring what it is intended to.

For example, a test that asks a student questions about French movies is not a valid measure of the student's mathematical abilities. This would be an invalid measurement. Factor validity is related to context validity which is how well do the questionnaire items represent the construct being researched. Factor analysis is used to test the factor validity of a measure or questionnaire. Correlations between responses are clustered together by groupings of items in the measurement.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Factor+Validity
When the brain is 'resting' is enters the DMN. It uses less energy and engages in low activity oscillations. The brain will leave the DMN for another network when it begins focusing on a task or giving attention to a stimulus. It is essentially like a screensaver for your brain: after a period of mental dormancy it enters the DMN and stays there on low power until it is engaged again. There is evidence that suggests there may be more than one DMN.

Areas of the brain shown to be involved with the DMN include the parietal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, temporal lobe, and posterior cingulate cortex. The DMN has been shown to be affected by a host of brain disorders including Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Autism Spectrum Disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Default+Mode+Network+%28DMN%29
For example, imagine you are competing in a raffle in which only 20 tickets were sold. You are only allowed to purchase 5 tickets. Hypothetically, you could choose to enter the raffle in one of two conditions: you having 5 tickets and 5 other people having 3 tickets each OR you having 5 tickets with only one other person having 15 tickets. Although your chances of winning are the same in either condition, most people would chose to enter the one with only one other person. This is the alternative outcomes effect. The perceptual likelihood of winning changes depending on how alternative outcomes are distributed.

So the perception that you are going to win the raffle is greater if competing against only one other person than if you were up against 5 other people. Although the probability of your win is the same (you only have 5 tickets!) it just seems as if winning is more certain when competing against one person. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alternative+Outcomes+Effectsex differences in that sex differences are driven by actual biological gender disparity (such as distinct physical differences) rather than by differing environmental factors that affect our cognition and behavior. Sex is typically used to mean a biological difference like traits that are sexually dimorphic (different between males and females) whereas gender is more of a range and can include many different attributes because of the social and cultural influences on sexual behavior. Sex differences therefore refer only to those differences that can be attributed solely to biological difference. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+DifferencesCarl Rogers in which individuals select goals based on inner nature, internal rationality, and individual decision making. It is a means for an individuals to fulfill their actualizing tendency which is a desire and need to develop and evolve as a person. This process uses organismic variables to develop goals and make decisions. Organismic variables are the internal forces and influences that influence an organism’s behavior.

Rogers proposed that people who experienced a caring, supportive, and loving environment during childhood were more able and likely to trust themselves and their internal feelings in regards to decision making and goal achievement. The organismic valuing process includes many variables such as authenticity (being yourself), autonomy (making your own decisions and not basing it on other people's desires), an internal locus of evaluation (not seeking the approval of others), and unconditional positive self-regard. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organismic+Valuing+Processeidetic imagery which involves great detail and abnormally good recall. A rare phenomenon, it is more commonly found in children than in adults because this skill tends to fade with age. This is probably the explanation behind why some people can reproduce musical tunes after a brief exposure or recall written materials word of word. It may also explain the ease that some people have with applying mathematical formulas or spacial reasoning to practical problems. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Photographic+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Failure+To+Thriveconfirmation bias. A confirmation bias can cause a researcher to interpret results in accordance to their desired end and ignoring data that does not conform to the desired results. This can be a threat to the internal validity of the studies involved.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expectancy+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceptual+Comprehension
The purpose of the mindguard is to "filter" and control the amount of information that is available to the group in the name of attempting to focus, as well as to limit, the number of possible solutions that are likely to arise within the group. This phenomenon can be either positive or negative.

On one side, without mindguards and depending on the situation the number of possible solutions to a given problem could approach infinity. In this case the mindguard phenomenon functions to limit solutions to what is actually viable.

On the other side, the mindguard can limit possible solutions to only that that which creates a bias that is favorable to the committee (and whatever entity they represent). Mindguards are theorized to exist in a variety of group settings but they are not always easy to identify. This adds to the difficulty in countering the phenomenon.

An example of a mindguard is a deadline for a decision. By having a time constraint the possible solutions or decisions are limited to which ones are proposed before the deadline. This can be both positive (the easiest, obvious, or most effective decisions are reached) and negative (superficial solutions, time constraint leads to bad decisions that are rushed). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mindguard
Researcher Karl S. Lashley, in his work between 1929 and 1950, attempted to locate the physical area where memory traces were stored. He trained rats to run mazes and once thoroughly trained, he performed surgery on the cortices of the rats' brains. He learned that although this surgery caused their performance to diminish somewhat, they did not forget how to run the mazes. Surprisingly, it was discovered that it didn't really matter what part of the brain was removed because these memories are apparently generalized throughout the brain structure. Although engrams are believed to exist the actual methods and locations of the process are still being researched and debated to this day. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Memory+Tracedisplacement. Freud viewed displacement as a form of dream-distortion: substituting an illusion for something real and substantial or a shifting of focus from something important to something less important.

An example of the latter would be someone having a bad day at work and quietly accepting the criticism of higher-ups then going home and taking out anger and frustration on family members rather than focusing on how to fix the problems at work.

Condensation is when displacements merge and fuse (or condense) together. Freud submitted that one aspect of manifest content could come to represent a number of latent elements (and vice versa) through a process called condensation. Freud proposed that condensation in dreams caused the combination of several themes or concepts into one dream symbol. A larger quantity of displaced concepts are reduced and condensed into one unified symbol. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Condensation
For example, individuals with darker complexions and hair will contribute skin and hair genes that may or may not mask lighter skin or hair genes contributed by a partner. This makes possible several potential combinations of genes that will result in several possible results including offspring having a darker complexion, a lighter complexion, or a mixture of the two. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Polygenichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dizygotic
An example of this from biology could be "animals that live in the ocean." After looking at this group it is seen that there are actually four main categories of ocean-dwelling life: fish, mammals, mollusks, and arachnids. Ocean life can then be categorized under these four categories by what traits they have in common. Its use in the field of psychology refers to a mental set or representation. In psychology mental and emotional disorders can be categorized by symptoms and severity. Some of these schemata groupings are psychoses, anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, and neuroses. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schemata
This is the opposite of "introversion," a personality type that prefers isolation and a tendency towards reserved and solitary behavior. These are people who are happy with their own company and who often have little interest is social interaction.

Extraversion and introversion are considered the opposite ends of a continuum of personality types. Closely studied in psychology since Jung, the evaluation of personality types has given rise to multiple schools of thought: the Big Five model, Jung's analytical psychology, Hans Eysenck's three-factor model, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factors with these personality types being included in several mental assessment methods including the Meyers-Briggs Type Inventory and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extraversion
Subjective distress is the discomfort, pain, and general uncomfortable feelings a person is experiencing.

Subjective means that it comes from the perspective of the individual experiencing it. SUDS is a numbered scale (1-10, 1-100) that measures the level at which an experience is disturbing or distressing to an individual.

For example, a SUDS could be used on a patient who is suffering from anxiety. They are asked to choose which number best represents the level at which they are experiencing the anxiety symptoms ranging from 0 (no anxiety, totally relaxed) to 10 (highest anxiety ever felt, extremely disturbed and disrupted by the symptoms). SUDS are commonly used by clinicians to measure the effectiveness of treatment.

So, for example. the anxiety patient mentioned before chose a score of 9 when initially evaluated by the clinician. After treatment with psychotherapy and short-term medication the patient is asked again and responds that they are at a 4. This shows a marked improvement and that the treatment has been effective. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subjective+Units+Of+Distress+Scale+%28SUDS%29IQ test and initiating the study called the Genetic Studies of Genius, a longitudinal study (hyperlink?) of gifted children.

Unlike previous studies of genius that focused on adults and looked only at the subject's history, he studied the subjects as they proceeded from childhood into adulthood and followed their careers. Terman also served as president of the American Psychological Association, was a eugenicist, and a member of the Human Betterment Society. His groundbreaking study of gifted children continued after his death and is set to continue until the last participant dies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lewis+Terman
On the other extreme of the continuum is shallow processing which requires only phonemic and orthographic analysis (how the sounds are connected to make words). An example of this might be the difference between reading new material where you are concentrating only on recognizing the words, rather than focusing on the meaning of the sentences and paragraphs.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deep+ProcessingContext is the situation, circumstances, or specific setting in which an event occurs.

Typically used in regards to communication, the situational context of speech influences what is considered socially appropriate and how the message is received. The situational context is defined by the event itself; you communicate differently in different settings. Think about how you talk in class, at a party, playing sports, and at a funeral. You use differing types and styles of communication in all of these settings. Imagine if a person used the same type of speech they did while playing an intense sports game at a funeral. This would not be appropriate at all. The situational context of these settings and scenarios both lead to differing types of communication. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Situational+Context
In the 1920s Luria used reaction times to study thought processes and developed the 'combined motor method' in which participants were given three tasks at the same time and asked to verbally respond to prompts. Along with Lev Vygotsky he developed a psychological approach that focused on how physical, sensory, and cultural components work together to produce adult psychological processes. This area was referred to as cultural, historical, and instrumental psychology. There was great emphasis placed on language and its influence and cultural importance on mental processes. Later on in his career he focused on neuropsychological issues such as aphasia, brain lesions, and brain injury. Luria's neurocognitive work is considered an early approach to cognitive psychology. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alexander+Luria
For instance, a person might write about "the problems that German citizens have while living in France" focusing on the specific cultural, linguistic, religious, and social difficulties that occur for this particular population. Because people living in their own native cultural or regional group don't automatically understand the perspective of a different cultural group this type of research is important in that it focuses on specific issues that a population has in common thereby being able to focus on understanding and remediating these common difficulties.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Regional+Perspective
According to researcher Piotr Sztompka, the most basic of "behaviors" are various physical body movements that humans have in common with animals. The second step is "actions" which are actions that have meaning and purpose. Third are social behaviors or actions that address other people. Fourth are "social actions" the form the beginning of a social relationship. Lastly, are the symbols that define not only our self-image but also our relationships.

These symbols are essentially the labels with which we define our relationships with each other such as friend, parent, child, or teacher.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Relations
Most roads are bidirectional and allow traffic to travel in two different directions. Likewise, the human nervous system is bidirectional and capable of carrying information both to and from the brain and body.

For example, if you put your hand on something hot, this information will go to the brain which will send back the message to remove your hand from the heat source.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bidirectional
Symptoms typical of these disorders are difficulty relating to people and objects (lack of eye contact and lack of facial responses), unusual play toys and other objects, repetitive body movements (hand flapping, hair twirling, etc.), inability to cuddle or be comforted, and problems with emotional and behavioral regulation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pervasive+Developmental+Disorders+%28PDDs%29
This type of behavior reflects having little or no forethought, reflection, or consideration of consequences. This trait is common in children; common examples include hitting or kicking as a result of anger or chasing a ball into a street without considering traffic. The tendency towards impulsive behavior reduces with age.

In adults, however, impulsivity sometimes manifests itself in behavior that is self-sabotaging. Examples include behavior that is inappropriate to a situation, plans that are poorly conceived and/or prematurely expressed, and actions that are unduly risky. This can include some types of criminal behavior (shoplifting and petty theft, causing injury or death due to sudden anger), relationship failures (getting involved too seriously or quickly with strangers), or dysfunctional workplace behavior (arguing with superiors, refusing to follow rules and procedures). Extreme impulsivity can be a symptom of some personality disorders including borderline personality disorder and psychopathy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Impulsivity
For instance, in North America people have traditionally believed that having a black cat cross your path will cause bad luck, or that breaking a mirror will bring 7 years of bad luck.

Another example of a superstition would be an athlete believing that a certain piece of clothing was 'lucky' and if they didn't wear it they wouldn't win.

Also seen in the Americas is a spiritual rift between Native populations and the European descended population. This is seen where most Europeans follow and use Christian beliefs and look down on the beliefs and traditions of the Native groups as "superstitions." Likewise, Native tribes continue to practice and believe in their traditional ways and view Christian beliefs as alien and "intrusive." ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Superstitionsschizophrenia. Clinically, paranoid schizophrenia is characterized by relatively stable persecutory delusions that are accompanied by auditory hallucinations and perceptual disturbances. These lead to the patients feeling as though they are being watched and targeted by powerful forces (CIA. FBI, etc.), hearing voices that give them negative messages, and other perception problems. This form of schizophrenia has no cure but the symptoms can generally be managed through medications.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paranoid+Schizophrenia
An example of this is the "baking soda volcano" experiment that many of us performed in science class. In this the combined action of vinegar and baking soda combines to create an intensely bubbling eruption that is caused by chemical interaction. Neither the vinegar or baking soda is capable of producing such a dramatic effect by themselves. In medicine, synergistic effects are seen when one medication might be prescribed in conjunction with another to intensify the action of the second medication. A synergistic effect can also occur by accident with drug interactions.

For example, alcohol can intensify the effects of some medications. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synergistic+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sleepwalking
For instance, if cleaning a shed or working in the yard you encounter a spider or a snake the first reaction is back off. Likewise, if you are out hiking and spot a bear, lion, or wolf the first reaction is to get away quickly. These automatic reactions are believed to have developed over centuries or millennia as a means of ensuring safety.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preparedness+Hypothesis
Agewise, adolescence can almost be considered a "psychotic" phase of life because of the rapid changes of mood, interests, activities, and relationships coupled with a lack of foresight and consideration of consequences. Many teenagers will score high on psychopathy measures because of their high levels of some of these traits which disappear once they become adults. For this reason, behavior that could be considered normal for a teenager could be abnormal for an adult. Behaviorally, for instance, it is considered normal to have sex periodically with a consenting partner; however, to be constantly and compulsively seeking sex with strangers is abnormal. Some types of behavior are considered normal within a cultural context but would be considered abnormal in other contexts. For example, hearing voices" and responding to their directions is seen in some cultures as a sign of holiness while other cultures consider hearing voices to be psychotic and dangerous.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abnormal+BehaviorGordon Allport and Henry Odbert used the lexical hypothesis to conduct one of the most important and seminal studies in personality psychology. They used the dictionary to identify nearly 18,000 terms that described personality, behaviors, and traits. Raymond Cattell used computers in the 1940s to analyze Allport and Gordon's terms and condensed them into 16 source traits or factors eventually developing the 16PF Personality Questionnaire which is still used to this day. Warren Norman reduced Allport and Gordon's terms to 3,000 and eventually identified five overarching factors that encompassed most of human personality. Other researchers did the same and the Big Five (hyperlink?) personality factors became the most inclusive method of measuring personality. The Big Five are openness to new experience, conscientiousness, extraversion/introversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. (OCEAN) and research has shown between the five 80% of personality variance can be accounted for. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lexical+Hypothesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sleep+Spindlehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=K-Complexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Henry+OdbertBig Five Personality Traits. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Warren+Normanhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Marriage+Enrichment+Counselingbehaviorism and includes research areas such as conditioning and behavior modification. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioristtaste buds are sensory areas that are located primarily on the tongue. The taste buds respond to the tastant and the blending of taste sensations are sent to the gustatory center of the brain that recognizes and identifies the taste.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tastant
What this means is that the brain, through continued intellectual stimulation, can continue to learn and problem solve into old age and not regress into the sort of "faux "dementia that can occur when an older individual is not being mentally stimulated. A third way that mental malleability effects humans is in their "memories." Memory is information that is neurochemically stored in the brain and does not work like a videotape recording. Memories can change, or be manipulated, over time so that what you "remember" may not be wholly accurate. Memories can be planted, invented, or merely change as time passes. Following traumatic events it is possible for a person who is being interviewed to have memories "planted." The brain then stores the events that were suggested and builds a memory around events that never actually happened. It is also possible while in the grip of an intense dream that the brain may imagine something and incorporate it into memory thereby causing a person to remember something that never happened outside of their own mind.

Likewise, the mind can edit memories so that those memories can be faulty. An example, for instance; you are remembering a family reunion. You remember your Uncle Billy playing a practical joke. However, once you think about this on a time line, you realize Uncle Billy couldn't have been there because he died 2 year earlier. In this example you are substituting Uncle Billy for someone else that likes practical jokes. This type of "editing" frequently effects people who have had traumatic experiences. When being interviewed following such an event the interviewee may alter the events and details, not maliciously, but because of the basic faultiness of human memory. This is why the police and lawyers have very little faith in "eyewitness" memories.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Malleable
Different types of skills, particularly language (left hemisphere) and spatial reasoning (right hemisphere) are controlled by different areas of the two hemispheres. It has been noted that when the corpus callosum is severed the two hemispheres will work independently of each other even to the point that if someone whispers into one ear the other side of the brain will have no knowledge of what was said. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brain+Lateralization
An example of an indexical characteristic would be answering a phone call from your friend and deducing from their fast, loud, and frantic speech that they are very worried and concerned about something. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Linguisticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transitional+Probability
Predictability can be qualitative (such as predictable behaviors) or quantitative (such as the statistical prediction of results based on data). The predictability of an organism's behavior can be high or low.

An example of high predictability would be a mouse who was trained to push a lever after it sees a light. It receives food after it pushes the lever. After the mouse has been trained and repeated this task hundreds of times there will be a high predictability that the mouse will hit the lever once it sees the light again. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Predictability
For example, fast moving dark clouds, thunder, and lightning indicate the imminence of a big storm that is about to occur. In legal venues imminence refers to the likelihood that a dangerous or harmful event was going to happen to a person. In regards to self-defense the imminence requirement refers to the state and situation at which an individual was about to be harmed. The imminence requirement helps ensure the validity of a self-defense claim: a self-defense claim is not justified if no imminent threat to the individual was occurring. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Imminencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=John+Deweyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Birth+Ordermidbrain and is responsible for the production of dopamine. Dopamine signals the basal ganglia which is responsible for control of movement and the initiation of moving. The substanstia nigra is composed of two parts: the substanstia nigra pars compacta and the substanstia nigra pars reticulata. Parkinson's disease (hyperlink?) is caused by the ceasing of function of the dopamine neurons in the substanstia nigra pars compacta. This is why symptoms of Parkinson's include problems with movement. The related symptoms are tremors, difficulty initiating movement, rigidness, and moving slowly. Drugs like L-DOPA can be used to 'replace' the dopamine that is no longer produced by the substanstia nigra and can help greatly with Parkinson's symptoms. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Substantia+Nigrasynaptic cleft and are responsible for breaking down specific neurotransmitters. A synapse is a junction between two neurons in which information is passed by neurotransmitters.

The synapse is made up of two parts: the presynaptic ending and the postsynaptic ending (which is where the receptors for neurotransmitters are located). Synaptic enzymes deactivate neurotransmitters so the membrane potential can become stable and the synaptic channels can close. This process is called degradation and without these enzymes the synapse and channels would constantly be stimulated - essentially it would be like a light switch that is always left 'on'.

An example of a synaptic enzyme is acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which breaks down acetylcholine. (hyperlink?)]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synaptic+Enzymes
For instance, if there is a sense of danger in our periphery it 'takes over' the attentional focus as if something is being thrown at you from your extreme left.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attentional+SpotlightTriarchic Theory of Human Intelligence which proposes that intelligence is comprised of relationships between differing facets of abilities: analytical, creative, and practical.

These abilities work together to influence an individual's success within their social and cultural environments. Sternberg is also credited with developing the triangular theory of love which identifies different types of relationships which are comprised of three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. There are four combinations of these love types which make up different types of relationships: infatuation (passion with no intimacy or commitment), romantic love (intimacy and passion but no commitment), empty love (commitment but no intimacy or passion), and consummate love (all three factors).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Robert+Sternberghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apopheniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visible+SpectrumStanley Milgram's Agency Theory and is one of two states that an individual is in during social situations.

The other state is the autonomous state in which individuals direct their own behaviors and actions and take responsibility for consequences themselves. If in an agentic state people are 'agents' for another person and do what they are told to do, passing responsibility onto the ones directing their actions.

Two conditions must be present in order to be in an agentic state. The first is that the person who is in charge and giving the orders must be viewed as a legitimate leader and qualified to direct behavior. The second condition is that the individual must feel that the leader will accept responsibility for the consequences of their actions.

Research conducted by Milgram in his famous authority experiments showed that when individuals were told they had responsibility for the consequences of the increasing 'shocks' to the person in the other room they didn't obey the experimenter who was telling them to deliver the 'shocks' and wouldn't continue. When the experimenter would accept responsibility for the electric 'shocks' the participants would continue to deliver them to the person. This is an example of the agentic state: the participants would allow their actions to be directed by another person while giving responsibility to the person who was giving them the orders. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agentic+Stateemitted responses which are behaviors that, when performed, acts on the organism's environment and produces consequences that affect the organism such as reinforcement or punishment.

An example of an emitted response would be a mouse hitting a lever in order to receive a food pellet. This is an emitted response because it is voluntary and results in a consequence of the mouse's action that affects its environment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elicited+ResponsesGestalt psychology. Wertheimer's interest in sensation and perception began by observations of flashing lights. His research on light perception led to the discovery of the phi phenomenon in 1912 which is an optical illusion in which a series of still images presented in succession of one another are viewed as being in continuous motion. Along with Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka he was one of the founders of Gestalt psychology which embraces a holistic approach to understanding mental processes and perception. This holistic approach recognizes that small components are pieces that build the entire perception. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Max+Wertheimer+
A common peg word system is one used is a rhyming one associated with numbers. So you want to remember the ingredients and order of a chili recipe: beef, tomatoes, beans, onions, and chili powder. Using a rhyming association with numbers, think of 1-SUN, 2-SHOE, 3-TREE, 4-DOOR, and 5-HIVE.

To remember the recipe using the peg word system visualize the following:

1-Sun: for beef picture a cow wearing sunglasses and sunbathing 2-Shoe: for tomatoes picture stomping a big tomato with your shoe 3-Tree: for beans picture a bunch of beans growing all over a tree 4-Door: for onion picture a giant onion knocking on your door 5-Hive: for chili powder picture a hive of bees who are cold and chilly

By associating the items you need to remember with an order and visualizing them you can better recall information that needs to remain in order. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peg+Word+System
For example, you learn that a person just ran a marathon. That in itself is a great feat but you then learn the person had previously had a stroke and had been completely paralyzed the year before. The augmentation principle would present itself and your internal attributions may shift and your perception of the marathon runner would increase from being generally impressed to extreme admiration and awe. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Augmentation+Principlehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reciprocity+Of+Likinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Randomizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reproductive+Anatomyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mary+Whiton+Calkins
For instance, a person who is under a great deal of stress reports frequent and painful headaches but following examination does not have sinus problems, concussion, brain tumor, or any other physical problem that might explain the headache. After other causes can be ruled out this problem with headaches may then be diagnosed as somatic. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatization+Disorder
For instance, a child might see rocks on the ground in a grassy field and then creates a "causal attribution" and believe that they had grown there. Or, as in the ancient world, people would see natural phenomena like earthquakes or volcanoes and without a scientific base for understanding it would attribute it to the gods as being angry at the human race.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Causal+Schemata
For mammals it is imperative to keep the body temperature within certain boundaries. Body temperature in excess of, or below, said boundaries for a lengthy period of time can result in injury or death. Temperatures above or below these boundaries can be caused by disease or infection (fever) or long-term exposure to the elements (hypothermia and hyperthermia). The body uses many different mechanisms for thermoregulation; perspiration, increases/decreases in heart rate, restriction of blood flow, and shivering. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thermoregulationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interiorizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Language+Acquisition
For instance, if a person is having a problem at work the client would be free to vocalize about their relationship with their boss and co-workers, their duties, their ambitions for the future, and other job-related matters. By focusing on these matters and by vocalizing their feelings without input from the counselor they are able to sort through their feelings and identify aspects of their life and work where changes need to be made.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nondirectional+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adverse+Reaction
For instance, a chemistry experiment can be recreated in a lab and show the same results every time and this is considered a highly testable result. However, a sociological experiment can be constructed and carried out and conclusions can be drawn from the results. If someone tries to replicate this experiment, no matter how closely they try to come to the original population sample used, they will come up with somewhat different results. This would be considered a much less testable premise.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Testabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basic+AnxietyLawrence Kohlberg and helped to develop his stages of moral development. She disagreed with his interpretation that only men had the ability to perform moral reasoning. Her 1982 book "In a Different Voice" challenged the psychological notions that excluded and demeaned women and generalized research results to women that came from studies conducted only with men.

Kohlberg's results were challenged as only males were used in the research for the stages of moral development and these results were generalized to women.

Gilligan's research with females shows that women are in fact capable of moral reasoning but that they use a different method than men which wasn't measured in Kohlberg's research. Gilligan is a founder of difference feminism which is a perspective that acknowledges that there are different methods and qualities between men and women but that no value or judgment should be placed on these differences (one decision making method being better than another for example).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carol+Gilliganhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensitizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brain+Glucose+Consumptionadaptation-level phenomenon which is the tendency to judge novel stimuli based on our perceptions of stimuli experienced in the past. Our neutral levels are the intensity at which stimuli and events are comfortable to us - feeling not too hot or cold, whether music is too loud or too quiet, and whether a situation is pleasant or unpleasant. We base our experiences with novel stimuli and situations on our neutral levels that are a result of what we have already experienced. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neutral+Levelsbinding problem which is a term used for two different mental quandaries; the segregation problem (how does the brain separate the multitude of sensory input it receives and be able to focus on separate discrete elements such as identifying different objects) and the combination problem (how does the brain combine abstract influences like objects, background, and emotions into coherent experiences and situations). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Astonishing+Hypothesis
An example of this might be an author who writes from their heart and imagination but yet can go back later to what was written and honestly critique the style, and the flow of the narrative, the vocabulary and punctuation towards improving the end work.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Productive+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glycogenhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pathophysiology
This type of treatment has proved effective for otherwise treatment-resistant disorders like Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, essential tremor (a disorder that causes involuntary shaking), dystonia, chronic pain, major depression, and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD).

For treatment of multiple sclerosis small electrical shocks are typically directed to the thalamus while the globus pallidus is the focal area for the treatments of Parkinson's disease symptoms. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deep+Brain+Stimulation+%28DBS%29
These gametes fuse to create an embryo as a result of mating in organisms that procreate sexually. Each gamete contributes 50% of the parent's DNA. As a result of this fertilization the embryo, with a 50% DNA contribution from each parent creates a unique offspring. Shortly after the formation of the embryo, the embryo begins to grow and differentiate eventually becoming a fetus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conception
Between 1960 and 1985 3.5 million non-whites were forced out of their homes and moved into segregated housing areas creating one of the largest mass removals in history. In 1970 non-white representation in the government was abolished and black residents of the country were deprived of citizenship. Segregation was enforced in medical care, beaches, education, and public services with the services provided to non-whites being markedly inferior. Apartheid rule caused massive internal turbulence while the international community imposed sanctions and embargos on trade. Throughout the apartheid years, dissenters and rebels were imprisoned for long periods of time. Nelson Mandela, now a well-known name, was one influential dissenter who spent 27 years imprisoned under apartheid rule but went on to lead the country in the post-apartheid years.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apartheid
For example, a common conservation task uses water. When water from a normal glass is poured into a taller thinner glass it appears to be more liquid even though it is the same amount.

Another example would be conservation of matter - picture a ball of clay. When the ball of clay is pressed down into a flat sphere children without an understanding of conservation would not understand that there is still the same amount of clay even though its shape is drastically different. Children typically develop conservation of mass at ages 6-7, conservation of weight at ages 9-10, and conservation of weight around age 11. Horizontal décalage means that although a child has attained the general concept of conservation at age 6 they can't translate this concept into similar conservation tasks until they are older. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Horizontal+Decalage
Examples are 'repressed' memories that are actually false and false confessions to crimes that actually weren't committed by the individual confessing. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Imagination+Inflation
For example, when a stress response is needed the sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal gland to release neural stimuli: adrenaline and noradrenaline (also known as epinephrine and norepinephrine). The types of stress situations which cause stimulation of the endocrine system and the subsequent release of neural stimuli are the 'fight or flight' response and conditions of physiological stress such as dehydration or dangerously low blood pressure.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neural+Stimulus
For example, for something to be an equilateral triangle it must have equal side length and all angles be 60 degrees. This is the formal concept of an equilateral triangle. If a triangle doesn't have equal sides and 60 degree angles then it doesn't fit the criteria or guidelines to be an equilateral triangle and therefore would not be included in the concept. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Formal+Concepthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Solitary+Play
A simple example is a coin toss- 'heads' and 'tails' are mutually exclusive results to a coin toss. If the toss lands on 'heads' then it cannot land on 'tails' and 'heads' and 'tails' cannot happen at the same time.

Another example of mutual exclusivity would be choosing a red or black card from a deck of cards. Red and black are mutually exclusive in a deck of cards- choosing a black card makes the choice of a red card impossible. It is an either/or situation, it cannot be both at the same time. In developmental psychology mutual exclusivity describes a situation in early language acquisition in that that only one name or label can be applied to an object. This limits the abilities of very young children to fully comprehend how naming and language work. Mutual exclusivity can influence a child's language acquisition in a few ways.

For example, the disambiguation effect results from mutual exclusivity. The disambiguation effect can be seen when a child is in the presence of an unfamiliar object (a toy rhino) along with a familiar object (a toy dog). When given a new word they haven't learned ("pooky") and asked to pick out which object is a "pooky" they will attach the novel word to the rhino without knowing exactly what it is. This suggests mutual exclusivity: they know that the toy dog is a "dog" and since it cannot be anything else then the rhino must be a "pooky." Children don't understand that things can have different names and still be the same thing (dog, pet, animal, mammal).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mutual+Exclusivityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alfred+Kinsey
One example of this is the problems that bilingual individuals face when trying to formally study their first language. In this case, a child learns a language at home that is not the dominant language of their environment. Later on in high school or college when they formally study their first language they tend to have a great many problems because the nuances of their dialect like vocabulary, grammar, and accent is frequently at odds with the formal, international standard of the language that the teacher is presenting.

Likewise, if a person has learned to dance, play sports, or play a musical instrument but not been well instructed unlearning bad habits and replacing them with good habits can cause a lot of difficulty.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disruptive+Effect+Of+Prior+Learning+On+The+Recall+Of+Informationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equipotentialityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transgenderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Einstellung+Effect
Phototherapy is also used for the treatment of seasonal affective disorder (SAD, depression caused by lack of adequate sunlight in the wintertime) and circadian rhythm disorders such as delayed sleep phase disorder. The use of light therapy makes use of different types and wavelengths of light, and is prescribed for a certain amount of time per day, and sometimes even a specific time of the day.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phototherapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glucagon
As an example, a child learns a language while growing up. The child is then adopted into a family that speaks a different language. The child then learns to speak their family's language. Then several years later the older child or adult is exposed to their first language again. The adult will be able recall that first language and start using it again with only a minimum of difficulty. Or, even simpler, a child learns to ride a bike or to roller skate. That child grows up and doesn't do either of these things for several years but given the opportunity they would still remember how to bike ride or skate.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reconsolidationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Giftednesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Asynchronyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sclerahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Turner%27s+Syndrome
OCPD victims are known to bathe multiple times per day, repeatedly check doors and windows before leaving home, cleaning compulsively, or spend hours arranging pictures or straightening fringe on rugs. Some use counting rituals such as chewing food a specific number of times before swallowing. Research has shown that their may be an overlap between OCPD, Asperger's syndrome, and eating disorders.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Obsessive-Compulsive+Personality+Disorder+%28OCPD%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Placentahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Post-Partum+Depressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Microsleephttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Body+Dysmorphic+Disorder+%28BDD%29+
For instance, if a patient is suffering from cancer the doctor will first look at the rate of survival for the particular type of cancer along with the age and general health of the victim.65s The doctor will then use those statistics to "predict" the possibility of survival. Prognoses are not 100% certain as they are predictions and the actual case may be different from what the doctor presents. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prognosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thermoreceptor
For instance, most of us are familiar with how IQ scores breakdown on a bell curve. With IQ scores the majority of scores run from 85-115, with 100 as the mean score. On either side of this score range the numbers continue to decrease both in quantity until at the extreme ends you have "profound" retardation (individuals who are unable to speak, feed themselves, walk, etc.). On the other end you find "extreme" geniuses. Both of these latter scores are extremely rare in their occurrence. Kurtosis is the statistical means of quantifying these extreme "outlier" scores over extremely large sample sizes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kurtosis
This is studied in real life by examining the traits of identical twins that were separated at birth and adopted into different homes and circumstances. Scientists who study this have found interesting contrasts and similarities in the form of food preferences, artistic tastes, extracurricular activities, and relationships. These are traits that on the surface wouldn't seem to be genetic in origin but research has shown evidence that these may be influenced by genes.

On another note, historians enjoy speculating on how various historical figures would have turned out in a different time, place, or set of circumstances. An example of this would be "What if Hitler had been raised with a kinder home life and in a time and place of less political turmoil; would he still have been the vicious psychopath that he became?" His upbringing and the circumstances of his life, combined with his basic "mental wiring" (for lack of a better term) caused him to be what he became. Through research, by studying how genetic behavior is shaped by experiences, psychologists can work to improve parenting and education so that more individuals can have fulfilling lives. All children are born with a basic nature; shy, aggressive, athletic, artistic, and academic traits for example. With better insight into these personality types, education and discipline can be shaped to have a maximum effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epigeneticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuroleptic
">glial cell and are the fastest cells in the brain.

They move and scan the CNS for infection, damage, and brain plaque. They have their own territory that they patrol and don't overlap. The brain is mostly protected by the blood brain barrier which prevents most toxins and infections from being able to reach the brain. If something does breach this barrier the microglia are activated and quickly jump into action by fighting the infectious pathogens that are trying to damage the brain.

Microglia are very sensitive to the presence of pathogens - this is a necessity because most antibodies can't cross the blood brain barrier and therefore damaging infection could cause serious damage in a short amount of time if unchecked. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Microglia
A lack of orexin is involved with the incidence of narcolepsyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Orexinhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Picahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Andropause
Research has shown that ghrelin is increased in patients with anorexia nervosa and decreased in obese patients. This is further evidence that ghrelin levels are involved in hunger: anorexia nervosa patients are in dire need of nutritive substances so their body is increasing ghrelin in an attempt to stimulate hunger while obese patients are satiated and the body doesn't need nutrition at the moment and this causes a low level of grehlin in the body.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ghrelinhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ruminationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Artificialismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Telemereshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contralateralhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Convolution
For example, imagine a person who is always rude and a jerk. If their metaperception is that everyone thinks their ascerbic attitude is edgy and humorous then they will continue to behave that way and maybe even increase the amplitude of their behavior. This could possible lead to social exclusion and negative consequences. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Metaperception
For example, crime investigators have a suspect for a robbery in custody because of an eyewitness. But they need corroborating evidence in order to ensure they have the person who committed the crime. Corroborations would include fingerprints or DNA evidence at the scene of the robbery or other eye witnesses. These are supporting evidence that the suspect did indeed commit the crime. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Corroborationsocial identity theory - when someone pairs themself with others' success they get a rise in self-esteem. Examples of this include sports fans who wear team colors and clothing after a big win even those who have not supported the team in years - once a huge success is achieved they want to identify with the team. A related concept to this is CORFing which is "cutting off reflected failure." When a team loses, individuals distance themselves so their self-identity and self-esteem are not damaged. For instance, research has shown that when a team wins a fan is more likely to say "we won" but when their team loses they are more likely to say "they lost."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Birging
For example, water can be contaminated with chemicals or lead making it dangerous to drink. In research a contaminant is something that has entered a test substance that isn't supposed to be there.

For example, researchers must take great care in DNA testing not to contaminate the sample with their own DNA. This would make the results invalid and inconclusive.

Another example would be testing the sodium levels in a mouse. A possible contaminant could be sweat from the researcher which would skew the sodium levels making them appear higher than they actually are. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contaminant
There are five environmental systems: microsystem (immediate environment like family, school, neighboorhood, and peers), mesosystem (interaction between two microsystems), exosystem (indirect but prominant influences like parents' jobs and the school system), macrosystem (cultural influences like customs, beliefs, and government), and chronosystem (transitional influences over the lifespan, for example growing up during World War II or the civil rights movement). The mesosystem affects children directly and are interactions between two microsystems. Mesosystems can be long lasting (such as their family's involvement in their neighboorhood throughout the years) or a one time only event (like a parent chaperoning a school dance). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mesosystemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Body+Mass+Index+%28BMI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inhalantshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aphagia
Recent examples of this are internet related terms such as blog, meme, and selfie that have been recently coined and are now in frequent use. Neologisms are particularly common in young children who frequently assign idiosyncratic names to various objects such as naming their favorite blanket. In psychiatry, it is not uncommon for severely impaired clients (patients with thought disorders, autism or severe psychopathy such as schizophrenia) to use neologisms; words or usages, or nonsensical phonemic groups, in ways that are unique to the user. The latter of these is sometimes referred to as word salad.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neologismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multidirectionalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Connectivenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exorcismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Associationism
Examples of antianxiety medication include benzodiazepines and barbituates. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antianxietyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fabianism
For instance, in areas where trains and subways are used, these items eventually wear out or are replaced with newer models. These older and discarded rail cars are then referred to as disused. A similar set of circumstances can be found in the use of words, ideas, and techniques.

For instance, many of the words that are used in Shakespeare's plays are no longer in everyday use and be considered disused. Likewise, some outdated medical techniques such as lobotomy and "bleeding" can be called disused techniques. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disusehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brainstorminghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baxtermichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Immanuel+Kantpsychometrics to study areas such as intelligence and creativity in individuals. Psychometrics is the area of psychology that focuses on testing things like IQ, aptitudes, and personality traits using psychometric tools such as standardized tests, inventories, and questionnaires.

Guilford viewed intelligence as multifaceted and based on many different variables. He did not agree with theories that suggested that one intelligence measurement was capable of accurately and reliably measuring ALL individuals. He believed that bias in testing and differing methods of problem solving and reaching conclusions made it impossible for a single one factor concept of intelligence to be viable. He developed the Structure of Intellect (SI) theory in which intelligence is comprised of 150 differing mental capabilities that are categorized within three dimensions: contents (such as visual, auditory, behavioral), products (such as relations, classes, systems), and operations (such as memory, cognition, evaluation). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=J.P.+Guilford
While interest in the convergence of mind and health has been a subject of interest since the mid-19th century, the actual modern field of PNI dates to 1975 with the work of Robert Ader and his associate Nicholas Cohen, both of Rochester University in New York. This early research dealt chiefly with behavioral research done with rats to measure the relationship of chemical intake (as rewards) and physical health. More recent research has dealt with the interactions between stress and physical health by measuring the release of hormones, neurotransmitters, and other substances into the body.

Studies have shown how stress, anxiety, hostility, and depression can affect the immune system in negative ways. There is also PNI research in regards to optimism and happiness and how it can influence healing in positive ways. The placebo effect is also an area of focus for psychoneuroimmunology. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychoneuroimmunology+%28PNI%29norepinephrine. These type of antidepressants affect the levels of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain which affect a person's mood. SSNRIs are used to treat major depression and neuropathic pain. They can also be used to treat anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and some mood disorders.

An example of an SSNRI is Cymbalta (duloxetine). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SSNRIsocial cognitive theory which was developed by Albert Bandura.

He proposed that three core components make up individual personality: traits of the person, behavior, and envir

Not only do these factors make up personality but they all influence each other. An individual ends up the way they are by the interaction of themselves and the environment. Our behavior influences the environment and it in turn influences our behaviors and traits. This model attempts to explain why there are individual differences even in people who are raised in the same environment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Triadic+Reciprocalitycerebrum.The anterior cerebral arteries are located throughout the bottom of the longitudinal fissure and the upper surface of the corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows them to communicate with each other. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Longitudinal+Fissurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endomorphs
For instance, a medical example of this is how the use of the neurotransmitter noradrenaline, and its binding effect to the receptors in the heart, will cause improve cardiac output. The noradrenaline causes a positive ionotropic response in the heart because the neurotransmitter affects neural receptors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ionotropic
For instance, an adult that was physically and verbally abused as a child will grow up internalizing the messages that they heard growing up as well as not understanding the boundary between appropriate discipline and abuse. Through analysis of the past this person can find "referentials" or points of reference that create reactions. This can lead a person to recognize how the words or actions of others trigger negative feelings about themself and then once recognized, use these methods (such as positive self-talk) to counter those bad feelings.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Referential
For example, we know that when an object is dropped it will hit the ground. This can be proved by dropping multiple types of objects from different heights. When thinking about what causes this what is more likely: that there is an energy or force that pulls things to the ground or that invisible gnomes leap and pull the objects to the ground where they attach them with invisible string? Obviously the first explanation is more simple and using Occam's razor it would be the most probable explanation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Occam%27s+Razor+%28Law+Of+Parsimony%29
An example would be an OCD sufferer who engages in obsessive behavior such as checking door locks as a means of coping with the anxiety that the condition engenders. However driven they might be with need to keep checking and rechecking, it is an overvalued idea in that they actually know that this need is is not fully rational. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overvalued+Ideahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ossicleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Optimismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Olfactory+Hallucinationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Francis+Cecil+Sumnerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Formantshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+Symptomshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Therapeutic+Settings
"Passive" learning, on the other hand, is the trial and error process that we all use every day to find out what works and what doesn't and the most efficient ways of accomplishing tasks. Pyschologists study "learning" to better understand how and why different methods work for different people. These are called learning "styles."

Psychologists also study the existence of learning disabilities, or why some people have extra difficulties learning things that other find easy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learning
"Isolating," or the voluntary withdrawing from social situations, can also be a symptom of mental health issues such as depression. Humans are gregarious beings that do not do well when isolated from other people. While short-term isolation can serve as an effective punishment, prolonged isolation, such as solitary confinement, causes (or exacerbates) mental health difficulties. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=IsolationDNA and RNA). The nucleotide itself is composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a minimum of one phosphate group. The function of a nucleotide is to carry packets of energy within the cell in the form of nucleoside triphosphates. Nucleotides play a major role in cellular metabolism.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nucleotidehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nocturnal+Emissionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nihilismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=NEO+Personality+Inventoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Needle+Phobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Native+Intellectual+Abilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Name+Callingevolution and natural selection.

Mutations cause different species to develop and beneficial mutations encourage reproductive success.

Mutations are caused by many factors such as viruses, radiation, chemicals, or within the organism itself.

Examples of mutations in humans are hypertrichosis ('werewolf' syndrome where the sufferers are entirely covered in thick body hair) and Marfan syndrome (which is a disorder of tissues which causes bones to overgrow and cause joint issues). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mutations
For example, around age two months is when infants can lift their heads. Around six months is when infants can sit up without any support. Around one year old is when babies can walk without supporting themselves. If motor development does not occur within a normal time frame a developmental delay could be present in the infant. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motor+DevelopmentAphasias in general are the inability to use language appropriately and may include problems speaking language, hearing language, and reading language. Individuals suffering from a motor aphasia can understand and comprehend words (spoken and written) but have difficulty or inability to actually speak the words. Motor aphasias are typically caused by lesions that affect the insula ande operculum areas of the brain, as well as Broca's area. Motor aphasia is a broad term that includes Broca's aphasia (hyperlink?). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motor+Aphasia
For example, laughing at a funeral would be considered mood-incongruent. This is the opposing concept of mood-congruent behavior which is when expressed actions and emotions are consistent with how the individual actually feels (such as smiling when happy and frowning when sad.)

Mood-incongruent can also be used to describe certain delusions. A mood-incongruent delusion is not consistent with the mental state of the individual experiencing the delusion.

An example would be a depressed person who believes that their thoughts are being transmitted to their brain by another person. This is a bizarre and manic delusion which is not congruent with someone who is in a depressed state. The opposing concept of this is a mood-congruent delusion which is a delusion that is consistent with the individual's current mental state. For example, a mood-congruent delusion of a depressed person may be that everyone on the planet hates them and wishes they were dead. This delusion is consistent with depression. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mood-IncongruentJohn Bowlby and is a component of attachment theory. Monotropy is a conceptual attachment formed by a close and important bond with a single primary caregiver. Bowlby proposed that if this monotropic bond did not occur then negative consequences could occur. Monotropy is part of the maternal deprivation hypothesis. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Monotropyphenotype of an organism. An allele is one of a pair of genes on a chromosome - the pair controls the same trait.

An example of a monogenic trait is eye color or the ability to roll your tongue. A polygenic trait is a characteristic controlled by two or more genes that are located at different areas on different chromosomes.

Examples of polygenic traits include height and weight - many genes are involved in the expression of these traits. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Monogenic+Trait
This research area was first introduced by Henri Tajfel and previously it was believed that group biases occurred because of personal factors. Tajfel proposed that the minimal requirement for group biases and discrimination to occur was simply to be part of a group even if it was for a trivial and random reason. Minimal groups research has shown that irrelevant and arbitrary distribution into groups can cause individuals to favor their group over others and show prejudice towards members of other groups.

For example, in an experiment participants are divided into groups A and B for an arbitrary reason such as shirt type or color preference. After being distributed into arbitrary groups individuals will begin to show favoritism to members of their group and prejudice towards members of other groups. This shows that there doesn't need to be idealogical justification, benefits, or personal factors in group biases- simply being a member of a group was enough for biases to occur. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Minimal+Group+Paradigmmacropsia and is sometimes called "Alice in Wonderland" syndrome which combines both micropsia and macroscopia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Micropsiaretina decreases. The cones of the eyes begin reacting to the brightness of the light and become more active than the rods of the eye. This increases the accuracy of vision and the sensation of color. You know how when you leave a dark room for the bright light of a sunny day there are spots and color distortion that eventually fade away? This is light adaptation. The other end of the spectrum is dark adaptation which is the adjustment from an illuminated area to darkness. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Light+AdaptationAblation is when tissue is removed using surgery, lasers, or vaporization.

Lesioning studies are a part of the study of cognitive neuroscience, primarily in the area of declarative memory. This technique of study involves study lesions of the brain, whether the result of injury, illness, or induced by the researcher. The two brain structures that are most often used in this type of study is the amygdala and the hippocampus. These studies, generally performed on lab rats, measure the ability to learn new skills and then to transfer that learning to other situations. It has been proved through these studies that the hippocampus integral to learning and memory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lesioning+Studiescognitive dissonance which is an unpleasant state of mind that occurs when two conflicting beliefs or thoughts are held at the same time. If a goal isn't as worthwhile or beneficial and an individual worked hard towards the goal then internal conflict is created. Justification of effort makes the goal to appear more worthwhile and justifies the work put in to achieving the goal. This seems more beneficial than feeling like the hard work was pointless. Aronson and Mills did well-known studies on the justification of effort. One showed that when individuals were hazed for membership to a social group (like a fraternity or sorority) the justification of effort occurred. The hazed individuals held their group in higher esteem in order to justify their humiliation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Justification+Of+Effortdeja vu which is the feeling that something has happened before. Instead of feeling like you've experienced something before something familiar feels foreign and strange. It is typically a fearful or negative emotion. Jamais vu is sometimes used as an umbrella term to include jamais entendu and jamais vacu. It can be a symptom of temporal lobe epilepsy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jamais+Vu
For example, a motive for exercise is better health and weight loss. In criminology a motive is the reason an individual committed a crime or offense. For instance, the motive for someone who robbed a store is most likely that they needed money. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mimicryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mild+Mental+Retardationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Rituals
As an example, it is ultimately more successful in college classwork to stay on top of a subject by frequent reviews of material rather than relying on all-night "cramming" the night before an exam.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Massed+Practicehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mannerisms
This model of health care is controversial.

On one side of the argument is that it has reduced the cost of medical care by cutting down on unnecessary tests and hospitalizations. The opposing side of the argument claims that it makes it more difficult for patients to access specialists for needed care. Essentially, the jury is still out on whether managed health care is an improvement over other systems.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Managed+%28Health%29+Care
For example, a small sofa may appear to be the size of a large vehicle. This condition is the opposite of micropsia which is when objects appear to be smaller than they actually are. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Macropsiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Likert+Scalehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Light+Intensity
For example, "I never regret my actions" and "Sometimes I feel bad about things I've done." These two answers cannot both be answered positive or negative if the subject is being truthful. If the subject's answers are not consistent then it indicates that they are being deceitful. This can be the result of a person trying to present themselves in a more positive light than they really are which is known is research as "faking good."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lie+Scaleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learning+Model
For instance, in a police interrogation, to be asked "Were you at Smith's Bar and Grill on Saturday night at 9:00?" the person being questioned can only say yes, no, or go off on a tangent of denial. However, if asked "Where were you Saturday at 9:00 PM?" this open-ended question can elicit any number of answers as well as open a productive dialogue. In professional settings (law, law enforcement, mental health, etc.). the open-ended question is always preferable and elicits more reliable answering. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Leading+Question
For instance, observing children in a classroom setting you will have children sitting down, listening to a teacher, or doing classwork. However, observing children on the playground at lunchtime you will see children outside of the controlled environment interacting and behaving in in a wide variety of different ways due to the freedom of the naturalistic setting. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Laboratory+Observation
This can be a symptom of epilepsy, aphasia, and amnesia. An example would be driving a car for years and then one day having the sensation that you don't know what to do, how to work the pedals, how to signal, etc. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jamais+Vecuhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jamais+Entendu
For example, if you put your hand into icy water your nervous system will react quickly and cause you withdraw your hand. After this happens, you can put your hand back into the water and although you will still feel the cold you will not experience the reflex of hand withdrawal.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inhibitory+Postsynaptic+Potential
By offering and accepting small concessions then trust can be established between the two opposing parties. It has been shown to be effective in in increasing cooperative behaviors and trust experimental settings and has been used in diplomatic conflicts. Osgood developed this method during the Cold War (hyperlink?) believing that GRIT could be used as an alternative to nuclear war.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Graduated+And+Reciprocated+Initiatives+In+Tension+Reduction+%28GRIT%29
For instance, a person may have grown up in a family or culture where extreme prejudice against other ethnic groups (implicit attitudes) are deeply ingrained. Implicit attitudes are unconscious and uncontrolled. However, with age, distance, and education a person may choose to adopt an inclusive and non-prejudiced "explicit attitude."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Explicit+Attitudes
This might be easiest explained by an examination of racial prejudice. Depending on a subject's upbringing (regional, ethnicity, exposure to the attitudes of others, etc.) they may have been exposed to prejudiced attitudes to the point of having deeply prejudiced implicit attitudes towards certain other ethnic groups. However, with age, education, exposure, and shifts in social attitudes the subject may choose to embrace an explicit attitude of non-prejudice in order to not feel social judgments or ramifications for their prejudiced beliefs. This subject can be described as having dual attitudes. In this type of case, the subject would need to engage in serious self-examination to acknowledge this duality.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dual+Attitudes
Within that basic cycle are variations with some people feeling active and energetic in the morning, while others feel "up" at later times during the day. These diurnal variations are called chronotypes with the spectrum ranging from 'larks' or individuals with 'morningness' (those who wake early and are most alert then) and 'owls' or individuals with 'eveningness' (those who are more alert later in the day and prefer to stay up late).

In some cases diurnal variations can switch to where a person may be awake at night and sleepy during the day. While this can be of benefit to those who work night shifts, for most people it causes inconvenience and may need medical intervention to change this cycle. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diurnal+Variations+Of+Mood
Each of these branches that emanate from neuron has a matching branch from from another neron to create a synapse. Some of these branches can be micrometers in length.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dendritic+Treehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Complexity+%28Light+Waves%29
Attitudes about foods, activities, personal attractions, etc. are partially shaped by a person's environment, partly by intangibles that are possibly genetic in origin (sense of taste, physical talents) and /or experiences while growing (personal attractiveness, personality types, etc.).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Implicit+Attitudehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Imperative+Hallucination
This type of hallucination is commonly seen in persons who suffer from some types of focal epilepsy (such as temporal lobe epilepsy) and emanates from the insula and sylvian fossa of the brain. Temporal lobe epilepsy is characterized by recurrent, unprovoked epileptic seizures that originate in the temporal lobe of the brain. Gustatory hallucinations can also be a symptom of schizophrenia. Typically the tastes experienced are unusual and not pleasant.

For example, a person experiencing a gustatory hallucination may perceive they are eating spoiled food even when they are not. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gustatory+Hallucination
For example, this is often seen in military units that have a strong leader and unit members that are equally dedicated to the job.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+CohesivenessGeneralized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), is characterized by excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry. People who suffer from GAD report uncontrollable worry about work, family, finances, relationships, and health. Some of the physical symptoms that are seen in conjunction with GAD are fatigue, headaches, numbness in the extremities, muscular tension, gastrointestinal complaints and many others. Diagnosed around twice as often in women as in men, this level of chronic worry can adversely affect the daily life and physical health of the sufferer. This disorder can be treated with antidepressant/anti-anxiety drugs or talk therapy and treatments have a high rate of success]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Free-Floating+Anxietyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Forebrainhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flat+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Feigned+Scarcity
For example, a person may think that their ability to play sports is special and unique to them. They don't consider the millions of other people who are just as good or even better at sports than they are. The opposing concept to this is the false consensus effect which is the tendency for an individual to overestimate the degree to which other people agree with them. This can be harmful in group decisions when someone thinks that all of the other members agree with them when in actuality they do not. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=False+Uniqueness+Effectexternal locus of control. This point of view keeps the individual from taking the credit or blame for their actions and is sometimes viewed as a "failure to take personal responsibility."

This attribution style is common to people, adults and children both, that believe that they have no ability to take control of their own lives or have any faith in themselves. This is often seen in special education classrooms where children feel overwhelmed by academics, teachers and authority figures and in the populations of homeless people and abused spouses who feel unable to control the forces and circumstances of their lives.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=External+Attributionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuron
For example, a person gets a bad grade on a test. They question themselves as to why they got such a bad grade. Internal attributions might be that they were tired or that they are not smart enough for the class. External attributions would that the instructor didn't teach the material well enough or that the test was too difficult. Internal attributions are a feature of attribution theory and are a characteristic of people with an internal locus of control. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+Attributiondiabetes can occur. The ingestion or injection of insulin can be a treatment for diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is often diagnosed in childhood while Type 2 diabetes develops later in life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Insulin
Other less obvious forms of dyskinesia can cause a discoordinaton of the respiratory system which can cause breathing problems. Orofacial or tardive dyskinesias involve involuntary body movements that are not classified as movement disorders. A severe example of a dyskinesia would be an involuntary punching or kicking motion. Recent research dealing with the management of dyskinesia has seen positive results with selective mu opioid receptor antagonists (hyperlink?). These drugs block the reception of opioids by by the mu receptor cells of the individual neurons.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dyskinesia"medical model". This perspective views addiction as a physical disease process with biological, neurological, genetic, and environmental sources and believes that treating all of these aspects simultaneously has the capacity to "cure" the problem. This is a change from the old-fashioned idea that addiction is a moral failing. Treatment under the medical model evaluates the actual addiction and attempts to treat the underlying problems. For example, many people who become alcoholics or drug addicts start using substances as a means of trying to control depression, anxiety or bipolar disorder. When these problems are identified and are treated with the appropriate medicines and supplemented by counseling these addictions can be managed. The older views of addiction as a moral failing was largely based on religious ideas of sin. This caused people, even doctors and other professionals, to maintain that abstinence was the only solution and that that was easy to achieve if one had the moral resolution to do so.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disease+Model+Of+Addiction+
Common examples of delusion of control include thought insertion (the belief that someone is inserting or planting thoughts in your head) and thought withdrawal (the belief that someone is stealing your thoughts).

For example, a schizophrenic person with delusion of control might believe that aliens are stealing their thoughts or the government is planting thoughts in their mind. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusion+Of+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deja+Vecuhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deja+Entenduhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Irritable+Moodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Integrative+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Integrative+Agreements
For example, in an experiment by Festinger and Carlsmith participants performed a really boring task. Afterwards they were asked to be dishonest to the next participant by lying about how fun and entertaining the task was. One group of participants was given $1 for lying while another group was given $20 to lie. They found that the $1 group rated the task as being a lot more fun than the $20 group. The insufficient justification effect occurred. Both groups needed a justification for being dishonest: the $20 group had an external justification (getting $20) while the $1 group didn't so they developed an internal justification (that the task was more fun than it actually was).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Insufficient+Justification+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Instinctive+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Innate+Ability
The findings of these studies have been important legally when dealing with "recovered" memories of severe trauma such as sexual molestation or rape to determine whether or not these memories were real or manufactured. Additionally, this research was important in finding the truth when a spate of lawsuits dealing with day care abuse cases were brought and where the children, when repeatedly interviewed, told increasingly unbelievable stories. This has lead to revisions in the ways in which subjects of alleged abuse are interviewed using open-ended questions rather that specific questions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Memory+Implantationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypnagogic+Hallucinationsarousal, and sensitivity to sensory stimuli. It is characterized by increased anxiety and a heightened sense of threat detection.

Hyper means 'too much' or 'excessive' while vigilance is sustained concentration and being alert for possible danger or threat. Hypervigilance is a symptom of some anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the manic phases of bipolar disorder. This state of heightened anxiety can be mentally and physically exhausting- being constantly on alert and scanning for possible threats is not a normal condition and can lead to possible health problems if it is a constant state. Hypervigilance is also seen in abused children and adults]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypervigilance
Causes of hypersomnia include narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep deprivation, drugs or alcohol, brain injury or disorders, and depression.

An example of a hypersomniac would be a person who has sleep apnea and although they sleep over 8 hours a night feel exhausted all day long and constantly fall aleep while at work. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypersomnia
Hyperphagia can be caused by damage to the hypothalamus. It can also be a symptom of diabetes, Prader-Willi Syndrome, Bardet Biedl Syndrome, and endocrine system issues. It can also be a side effect of some drugs. Not only can hyperphagia have a biological etiology but can also be an eating disorder caused by psychological reasons. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperphagiaattention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

An example of a hyperactive child would be one who is running around the room, talking excessively, and not being able to focus on any particular task. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperactivityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Humorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Distortionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disorientationindependent variable during the experiment.

An example would be a drug trial for a new pharmaceutical. To test the effect on the disorder and discover any side effects an independent measures design could be used. The researchers use two different conditions: group A who receives the drug and group B who receives a placebo (a fake pill). The participants would be randomly assigned to one of the two groups- for it to be an independent measures design each participant would either be in group A or B, not both. Advantages of independent measures design include less time/money involved than a within subjects design and increased external validity because more participants are used. A disadvantage is that individual differences in participants can sometimes lead to differences in the groups' results. This can lead to false conclusions that the different conditions caused results when it was really just individual differences between the participants. Random sampling can help with this problem. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Independent+Measures+Designcongruence occurs. It is impossible for a person to be completely overlapped- we always have something with ourselves that we wish was different. Individuals seek congruence and when the distance between the perceived self and ideal self is too far it is called incongruence and it can lead to discomfort, anxiety, stress, and frustration. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Incongruence
However, researcher William Hamilton, in research that was published in 1963-64, proposed that indirect reproduction (where other members of a closely related group are able to reproduce) can be equally successful even if one member of the group is lost.

In an action referred to as reciprocal altruism, an animal (for example, a prairie dog), sees a predator coming and in sounding a warning to other members of the colony gives its own location away and might die for that action. However, having saved the remainder of the colony, allows the other colony members to continue to reproduce, it has succeeded in allowing for the continued passage of desirable genes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inclusive+Fitness+Theoryempirical investigation that relies on empirical methods to measure the facts and variables that are used. For instance, an experiment to establish the existence of gravity would measure variations in weight of items dropped, the distance from the ground that they were dropped from, and wind speed among other variables to determine that gravity exists and how much weight and distance affects the items dropping to the ground.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimental+Researchintelligence that was put forward by researcher Steinberg in 1985. This theory holds that there are multiple components of intelligence that he referred to as metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components. These components are theorized to combine in various combinations to perform intellectual tasks such as perceiving problems in our long-term memory, perceiving relations between objects, and applying relations to another set of terms. The experiential-creative component deals chiefly with how well a task is performed with regard to how familiar it is.

For example, we all know that any task becomes easier with practice no matter how difficult it may have been the first time tried.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experiential+IntelligenceNatural selection is also a component of evolution in which species develop helpful natural mutations that allow members of a species to reproduce more successfully which ensures more of their genes are passed down to future generations.

Evolution can also be used in a descriptive sense to describe any positive, ongoing, change in people, places or circumstances. For instance, over time a situation can "evolve" from seeming hopeless to becoming positive (such as a formerly homeless person might find work, a place to live, and hope for the future).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evolutionethical guidelines are used in order to ensure research participants or those in therapy do not face any negative consequences from their participation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethicsdelusional disorder in which a person believes another person is in love with them when in reality they are not. The person of focus is frequently a famous person or a person above the status of the erotomaniac who is unaware the person loves them or even exists at all. Erotomania can lead to harassment of the person who is the object of the attention. Some stalkers of celebrities have erotomania - they believe the famous person is in love with them and communicating their feelings to them through their media. This sometimes leads to stalking or other dangerous behaviors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erotomania endogenous pacemakers.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endogenous+Biological+Rhythmsempirical investigation and have repeatedly shown valid results as being effective as a type of treatment. Therapists who use EVTs know these treatments have been scientifically tested in a rigorous manner and have been validated many times. For example, both cognitive and behavioral therapy have been shown to be EVTs by the scientific community. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empirically+Validated+Treatments+%28EVTs%29 euphoria. Although an elevated mood in general is a great and natural thing if it is excessive or sustained it can be a symptom of mania or bipolar disorder. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elevated+Moodtransmagnetic cranial stimulation (TMS) and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electric+Stimulation+Of+The+Brain
There are numerous "autoimmune" conditions: conditions where the immune system fails and the body essentially turns on itself and destroys its own healthy tissues. This is what causes diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, cancer, and numerous others. In recent decades the rise of HIV/AIDS, a contagious condition that destroys the immune system, leaves its victims weakened to the point of succumbing to diseases that would otherwise be relatively easy to treat.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Immune+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Immediate+Recallhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=+Illusion+Is+A+Distortionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identity+Moratoriumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identity+Diffusion
Examples of this are businessmen who decide in midlife to pursue religious vocations or someone who leaves lucrative employment to pursue art or a much lower-paying (but more personally satisfying) employment.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identity+Achievement
The term itself was coined in the wake of a bank robbery standoff in Stockholm, Sweden where bank employees were held for six days while the bank robbers negotiated a solution. By the end of this standoff the bank employees had gained such sympathy for their captors that they rejected help from governmment sources. A common interpretation of this phenomenon relies on Freudian theory that explains this as an ego defense mechanism that allows for bonding with the captor as by identifying with the aggressor.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identification+With+The+Aggressor
For example, thinking a group of people you don't know are talking about you. Or thinking that a newscaster is speaking directly to you. Ideas of reference refer to experiencing these thoughts but distinguishing them as not real. For example, you feel that a big group in a restaurant is laughing at your shirt. But then you reflect on this for a moment and realize that this is a ridiculous thought and dismiss it from your mind. A delusion of reference is when the individual believes these ideas and connections to be true. This can be a sign of mental illness such as schizophrenia and other delusional disorders. For example, thinking people on TV are talking to them specifically or believing that a world event happened for them. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ideas+Of+Reference+%28or+Delusions+Of+Reference%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypnopompic+Hallucinationshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Egomania
Classified as both a learning disability and as a deficit in fine motor skills, dysgraphia frequently overlaps with dyslexia and is at the root of problems with spelling and basic grammar. Children who demonstrate dysgraphia are normally channeled into special ed classes for alternative teaching strategies and additional practice. A child may be diagnosed with dysgraphia if they have difficulty writing words and have extremely bad handwriting. Not only is the handwriting messy and not in a straight line but the child might also have difficulty taking thoughts and expressing them through a writing medium. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysgraphiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disclosure+Reciprocityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Controlling+Behaviors+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Griefhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glossolaliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Global+Aphasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glial+CellsParkinson's disease, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, shingles, Lyme disease, and drug withdrawal. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Formicationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Folie+A+Deuxhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flight+Of+Ideashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fee+For+Servicehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Externalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expressive+Language
For example, if you are rolling one die, the odds are 1 in 6 that you will roll a 1. Mathematically this computes to a 15% chance of rolling a 1. Expanding this to 100 throws, you would normally expect to roll a 1 approximately 15 times. This is the expected value of rolling a 1 one on a die.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expected+Valuehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expansive+Mood
Psychological problems that arise in people are considered to be a result of an individual's confrontation with the limits of human existence. Existentialism as a philosophical concept focuses on the unique distress that humans face- we are the only organism that is aware of our mortality and that we will die.

Existential therapies are not focused on the past like many other types of therapies. Although the past is acknowledged the present and the future are more emphasized along with the traits of being a human and how these limitations can be freeing. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Existential+Therapy
For example, evaluation apprehension occurs in research participants who are being rated or observed by researchers. This can cause issues in research because the evaluation apprehension can cause the participants to not respond in a manner that they normally would. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evaluation+Apprehensionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Euthymiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erythrophobiacontact hypothesis which is a theory regarding how best to improve relations between groups that display hostility towards each other. Conflict can be reduced between ingroups/outgroups and majority/minority groups successfully if several factors are in place. One is that the people involved are equal status contacts. Similar histories and backgrounds must be emphasized and encouraged in order to increase the likelihood of reduction in conflict. Differing statuses affect people within the same group: high and low socioeconomic status, differing cultural groups, and age disparities can cause discordance within a group.

To reduce the conflict between two groups at odds with each other then contact and communication must be encouraged between equal-status contacts because they are less likely to foster aggression based on differences in their status.

For example, two rival high schools are combined into one large high school. The school administrators want the two groups who are rivals and used to exhibiting negative thoughts to the other to join together and get along with each other favorably. Would it be a good idea to combine one school's chess club with the other school's tennis team? No, it would not. But by joining the two different chess teams together and the two different tennis teams together the two groups can discover similarities, shared interests, and common traits with one another. This makes the likelihood of group cohesion much more likely to occur. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equal-Status+Contacthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empty+Nest+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotion+Work
For example, you are going to buy a new car. Using the elimination by aspects model you would first identify the attribute which is most important to you: safety. The different car options are weighed against this issue and a few of the options are discarded as a possibility because their safety ratings are lower than you desire. The second most important attribute in a vehicle to you is gas mileage. You take each option and judge is based on the gas mileage and a few options are eliminated because they don't get very good gas mileage. The next attribute is price, then style, etc. Eventually you will be left with one option and this is the one that is best. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elimination+By+Aspectshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electrooculography+%28EOG%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electromyopgraphy+%28EMG%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electrocardiograph
So let's say a person sees a child in the street as a vehicle is speeding towards them. The person runs and grabs the child saving it from being hit by the vehicle. The psychologically altruistic view of this action would be the person saved the child as a caring good deed towards the child with no regards for their own safety. The egoism viewpoint would be the person saved the child for their own benefit - they are heralded as a hero, they might win an award, they would have been socially judged if they hadn't attempted to save the child, etc.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Egoism
For example, when observing a person near them touch their nose a person with echopraxia may involuntarily begin to touch their nose. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Echopraxia
Because of the numerous possible causes treatment is highly individualized and can include oral medications, botulinum neurotoxin injections, physical therapy, supportive therapies, or surgery to create deep brain stimulation. Although dystonia can occur on its own it can also be comorbid (occur at the same time) with other disorders such as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and cerebral palsy. Dystonias can also be task-specific and caused by occupational or recreational movements and overuse of certain body parts.

For example, involuntary muscle spasms in the wrists, hands, and arms occur in golfers and musicians because they use (and sometimes overuse) those specific muscles frequently. Chronic writer’s cramp is a type of dystonia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dystonia
Dysprosody is the rarest neurological speech disorder but can also be caused by brain damage (from trauma, lesions, or stroke) and can be associated with Parkinson's disease.

An example would be a native English speaker who acquires this disorder and their speech changes and sounds as if they have an English or Chinese accent. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysprosodyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dyscalculiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysarthriahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Distributed+Practice
An example would be a student who instead of taking an exam would constantly be distracted by normal background noises (a ticking clock or the sound of a student writing) or visual stimuli. In a school setting distractibility can be be managed by providing a quiet classroom environment with distractions being kept to a minimum. It should be noted that distractibility happens to everyone - how many times have you caught yourself daydreaming during a less than exciting subject in class? It is only when distractibility is so intrusive that it interferes with everyday functions that it can be a problem. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Distractibilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delayed+Recallmajor depression.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depressionbinocular cues and textural gradient.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depth+Cuedevelopmental delay.

For example, if a child is not walking by the time they are 17 months old then they should be tested for any motor issues that are preventing them from reaching this developmental norm.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Developmental+Norms+%28also+Known+As+Developmental+Milestones%29fovea meet with interference from outlying visual information, (which are referred to as "flankers"). Graphemes are the smallest language unit that makes a sound.

An example of a single letter grapheme is 'cat'. The initial sound of the word is represented by the letter ‘c’. While not a major problem for most individuals, deficits in this skill can be a symptom of neuropsychiatric disorders (like schizophrenia and autism) or individuals who experience synesthesia. Research involving crowding experiments and individuals with synesthesia has shown that when other letters 'flank' the target grapheme it is difficult for the individual to identify the target grapheme.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Crowdingabstract thinking.

For example, thinking of an apple as just an individual apple is concrete thinking. Thinking of an apple in an abstract way would be thinking of it in regards to broader symbolic categories such as fruit, produce, or food. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Concrete+Thinking+intelligence. He proposed that intelligence is comprised of three different processes: practical, componential, and creative. Componential intelligence is the most recognized form of intelligence and is what most IQ tests measure. It includes logic, abstract thinking, verbal skills, and mathematical skills. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Componential+Intelligence+%28also+Known+As+Analytical+Intelligence%29Elaine Hatfield. Compassionate love is marked by trust and companionship while passionate love is more physical and sexual. Compassionate love develops over time and is typically longer lasting than passionate love. Commitment and intimacy are important components of compassionate love. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Compassionate+Love deliruim. Clouded consciousness can be a symptom of some forms of encephalopathy, anaphylaxis, Lyme disease, Wernicke's encephalopathy, and tapeworms. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clouded+Consciousness+%28also+Known+As+Clouding+Of+Consciousness%29catatonia - the sufferer isn't responding to external stimuli properly. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automatic+Obediencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dichromathttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dialectical+Reasoninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diagnosis
Type 1 is the result of the pancreas failing to secrete insulin and normally begins in childhood or young adulthood. Type 2 first appears in adulthood and is frequently the result of excess weight and/or lack of exercise. Some evidence suggests possibly a link with aging, often first appearing in middle-age.

Type 2 diabetes has been known to go into remission with weight loss and proper exercise. Gestational diabetes occurs as a side effect of pregnancy and usually disappears after childbirth. Depending on its type and severity, diabetes is treated through strict dietary control (restriction of sugars and processed carbohydrates), exercise, weight loss, medication (Metformin) and if necessary, insulin therapy (typically injections or pumps). Contrary to popular belief diabetes is not caused by excessive sugar consumption but excessive sugar consumption is linked to weight gain which does increase the risk of developing diabetes.

Recent research has focused on monitoring the AIC level (level at which glucose enters the bloodstream). An A1C level below 5.7% is considered normal, a level in between 5.7 to 6.4% indicates "pre-diabetes" and above 6.4% indicates diabetes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diabeteshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dereismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusion+Of+Grandeurhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deinstitutionalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decreased+Libidohttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cultural+Universalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Culthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Credibilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Couples+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Counterfactual+Thinking
There are two main types of corticosteroids: glucocorticoids and meneralcorticoids.

Glucocorticoids (like cortisol and corticosterone) are responsible for blood pressure, cardiovascular functions, and the regulation of energy conversion from food.

The mineralcorticoids (like aldosterone) are responsible for immune system responses and the suppression of inflammation. Synthetic corticosteriods (like cortisone, hydrocortisone, and prednisone) are a class of drugs that mimic the effects of the naturally occurring corticosteroids. They are used to treat autoimmune disorders like lupus by suppressing the immune system and inflammation issues like asthma, arthritis, and muscular injuries.

Synthetic corticosteroids are also used to treat Addison's disease which is when the adrenal glands don't produce enough natural corticosteroids.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Corticosteroidshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Corneahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contextual+Intelligencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Complementarityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Commitmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Commissurotomyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Comahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clanginghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=CircumstantialityMonozygotic twins are valuable research participants because they are genetically identical. When they are adopted by different families they are raised in different environments but still have the same genetic backgrounds. Researchers can surmise that common traits between the twins could be determined by genetics whereas differing traits could have been influenced by their environments. Some adopted twins who have been reunited as adults have been shown to have an astounding level of similarity.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adoption+Studyanterior cingulate cortex (ACC) which is responsible for chronic pain perception. Modern cingulotomies are performed using lasers and are considered safe and non-invasive. Regardless of this, cingulotomies are only performed when all other possible treatment options have been unsuccessful. Patients who undergo this treatment report being pain free afterwards or their pain being greatly reduced. The reduction of pain leads to a better quality of life due to reduced stress and anxiety and a need for fewer pain medications. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cingulotomycatatonic schizophrenia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catatonic+Stupor+catatonia characterized by stiff, immobile postures that cannot be easily moved. Sufferers of catatonic rigidity have flexibilitas cerea or waxy flexibility which refers to a bodily state in which you can move a person's limbs and they will stay wherever you move them. If you physically moved the arm of someone with catatonic rigidity it would stay wherever you moved it. This condition is seen in catatonic schizophrenia and mood disorders with catatonic features. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catatonic+Rigiditycatatonia and can be a symptom of catatonic schizophrenia or depression with catatonic features. An example would be a catatonic schizophrenic who is pacing the room and bumping into objects randomly and not reacting to the situation or other people in their environment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catatonic+ExcitementOedipal complex. This can occur in both males and females and presents itself during the phallic stage (occurring between the ages of 3-7).

For example, a son fears his father will damage his genitals because of his sexual feelings towards his mother. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Castration+Anxietydelta waves are different types of brain waves. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brain+WavesAlbert Bandura. Bandura developed social learning theory which proposes that behaviors are learned socially by observing and imitating others. In the bobo doll study Bandura wanted to see if observation of aggressive behaviors would lead to imitation of the aggressive behaviors by children.

Children were placed in one of three groups - an observing aggression role model, an observing non-aggression role model, and a control group with no role model.

In the aggression group children would observe adults acting aggressively towards the bobo doll (an inflatable clown) by punching it, hitting it with a hammer, throwing it, and shouting at it.

The non-aggression role models ignored the bobo doll and played with other toys in the room. Afterwards the children were placed in a room with a bobo doll and other toys and observed for 20 minutes.

The results showed that children in the aggression group were much more likely to engage in aggressive behaviors towards the bobo doll in comparison to the non-aggression and control groups. This supports social learning theory in that the children observed the behaviors of the role models and imitated them. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bobo+DollDelusions, a common symptom in schizophrenia, are false beliefs that the sufferer believes to be true. Non-bizarre delusions are false beliefs that could be true in reality. For example, a non-bizarre delusion would be an individual who believes their neighbor is a spy who has them under constant surveillance. This is a non-bizarre delusion because although it is a false belief it could be true. Although it is not impossible the neighbor could be a spy and this is a situation that could happen. Bizarre delusions are impossible and could never happen in reality.

For example, a bizarre delusion would be an individual who believes their dog works at a grocery store when they leave the house. Another example of a bizarre delusion is the Cotard delusion - sufferers believe they are dead and are a walking corpse. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bizarre+Delusioncircadian rhythm. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biological+Rhythms
For example, it is common to bargain at a flea market or yard sale. You counter the asking price with a lower one, the seller may counter that with a price higher than that but lower than the original, and so on. Eventually an agreement will be reached that both parties feel is fair. In psychology bargaining is used in the Kubler-Ross model which is also known as the five stages of grief (Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance). A person will try to avoid the bad situation by trying to bargain ("If I do this, then it won't happen.)]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bargainingcognitive behavioral therapy, are images or mental activity that occur as a response to a trigger (like an action or event). They are automatic and 'pop up' or 'flash' in your mind without conscious thought. Automatic thoughts can be beneficial. For example, you are driving and it starts raining very heavily. Automatically you think 'I need to be careful!' which leads to feelings of anxiety that cause you to drive more cautiously. Automatic thoughts can also have negative effects for people who have trouble with depression or anxiety.

For example, a person with anxiety sees an acquaintance frowning in their direction. They immediately think 'That person hates me!' which leads to feelings of anxiety, worry, and sadness. Thoughts like this can be damaging and unnecessary- the person who was frowning just had a pain in their leg! Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on negative thought patterns and automatic thoughts that make people depressed or anxious. By changing these patterns and discerning how they occur can help treat emotional problems. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automatic+ThoughtsInappropriate affectis when a person reacts in the 'wrong' or inappropriate way in a situation like laughing at a funeral or sobbing when a friend tells you a joke. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Appropriate+Affecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acalculiacatharsis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AbreactionHuntington's disease, brain lesions, drug side effects, thyroid problems, hypoglycemia, and pregnancy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Choreahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Channel+Of+Communicationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catecholamineshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brainhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bradykinesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bogus+Pipeline+%28BPL%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blunted+Affecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blackouthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Medicinehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automatismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autistic+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aurahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=+Auditory+Hallucinationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Atypical+Antipsychotic+Drugs+%28AAD%2C+Also+Known+As+Second+Generation+Antipsychotics%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attractiveness
An example could be seen with the prevention of children using drugs. Using roleplaying with children about being asked to do drugs allows them to develop counter-arguments that can be used in real life if they are ever offered drugs. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attitude+Innoculationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Atherosclerosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Astereognosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Astasia-Abasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Asceticismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anticipation
An example of anthropomorphism would be a child who doesn't want to leave their toys outside during winter because they are afraid the toys will get cold and scared. Other examples are Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny - both animals with very human characteristics and behaviors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anthropomorphismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anosognosiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anhedoniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychomotor+Agitationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anergiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amplitudehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ambivalence
For example, the word "high" can be used in a manner relating to elevation, in reference to drug use, or describing someone powerful. Pronouns are also example of ambiguous language. Using the word 'them' is much more efficient than having to name every single person in a group!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ambiguous+Languagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Akathisiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agraphiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acting+Outhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acceptance
For example, a statement derived from concrete thinking would be "There are 3 dogs." An abstract perspective could be thinking about numbers, different types of dogs, how some animals are pets, or how wolves and dogs are related. Young children are essentially just concrete thinkers - abstract thinking develops with age. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstract+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Idiographic+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Age+Of+Viabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenal+Medullahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Additive+Strategies
Examples are survival instincts, mate selection, aggression towards threats, and helping genetically related organisms (family) over non-related organisms (ensuring genes will pass on). Adaptive behavior can also describe actions, skills, and behaviors that humans develop and use in order to perform basic skills, be able to cope with novel situations. Social, conceptual (time, money, numbers), and practical skills are considered adaptive behaviors. The Diagnostic Adaptive Behaviors Scale (DABS) measures adaptive behavior proficiency in these areas.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptive+Behaviors
Examples of minority influence include the Suffragette and Civil Rights movements in the United States. These originated within a smaller group who over time were able to convince the majority to sympathize and agree with their side. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Minority+Influencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Infradian+Rhythms+
For instance, it can help when solving a puzzle to take a break and do something else for a bit. When you return to the puzzle the solution will sometimes instantly come to you after not thinking about it for a bit. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Incubationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperfocushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hertz+%28Hz%29
An example could be seen in a party scenario. Frank is at the party and a person spills a drink on him. Hedonistic relevance occurs and Frank thinks that the person deliberately spilled the drink on him out of malice and the person is very rude. If hedonistic relevance has not occurred Frank would have noticed the situational factors that caused the spill- the floor was slippery and the party was very crowded. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hedonistic+RelevanceFundamental Attribution Error which is the tendency for individuals to use external attributions for their negative behaviors ("I was speeding because the speed limit is too low and traffic was bad") and internal attributions for other people's negative behaviors ("That person speeding is reckless, dangerous, and shouldn't be behind the wheel"). Heider is also credited with developing balance theory which is a theory of attitude change that suggests that individuals use cognitive consistency (the desire to sustain personal values and beliefs) in order to seek out psychological balance. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fritz+Heider
An example is:

* Fun * Road Trips * Ice cream * Extrafun * New adventures * Dancing * Summertime]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acrostichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acronymhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Refractory+Period+%28ARP%29Kohlberg's stages of development which explains the development of moral judgment and ethical reasoning in individuals. Kohlberg built on the theories of Piaget to develop six distinct stages (three stages with two substages each) that show the progression of moral reasoning in humans. The first stage is the pre-conventional level which typically ends by the age of nine and is characterized by the lack of a personal morality code-people only follow or disobey the rules displayed by their adult role models. The conventional level is the second stage and occurs during adolescence and adulthood. During this stage individuals begin to develop personal moral codes by internalizing the rules of adult role models. There is no questioning of these norms and rules during this stage, they are adopted and not critiqued.

There are two substages within the conventional level. The first stage is characterized by good social relationships in which the individual is moral so that others will perceive them as a good person. The second substage of the conventional level is focused on a societal level and the maintenance of social order increases in importance. At this substage the individual becomes knowledgable about societal rules and norms and follows them in order to maintain social standing and order.

The first conventional substage emphasizes individual relationships with others while the second substage focuses on the relationship with society as a whole. After the conventional level comes the post-conventional level which only is reached by 10-15% of adults and usually occurs in later adulthood. This stage is characterized by concern for the rights of others and a personal morality code that may supersede societal laws or norms. At this stage a person develops universal moral principles that are used to guide their behavior instead of the unquestioned rules that were merely adopted from role models in the conventional level. An individual's personal moral reasoning is given more weight than the laws and rule of society. Abstract reasoning and social contracts are important in this stage. Many adults never reach this stage of moral reasoning. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conventional+Level
Two different organisms in the same physical environment (a fox and a butterfly) may have the same shared forest setting as their ancestors but have differing EEAs. Their ancestors faced different conditions, reproductive challenges, and social conditions making their EEA unique to their species.

Bowlby used EEA to describe the situational and external factors in which an evolved trait adapted from over time. The EEA is the collective influence of selection that caused an adaptation to develop. The EEA of early humans that resulted in our brain development is very different than the environment we face in modern society. Our brains evolved in early hunter-gatherer and nomadic societies which differ greatly from the majority of the modern human population. Some psychologists argue that modern society is 'mismatched' with the human EEA. Our culture is not set up in a way that is conducive to how environmental conditions were when our brains evolved. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evolutionary+Adaptedness+%28EEA%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Skin+Conductance+Response+%28SCRparticipant bias occurs.

For example, experimenters are interested in the food choices of individuals in unfamiliar social situations. They place a wide variety of snack foods on a table in the room where the participants show up for the experiment.

The experimenters could then tell the participants that they were going to complete a written memory test but to help themselves to snacks while the test room was being set up. The participants choose their food while the experimenters are watching and recording their choices. This is a classic use of deception - the participants think they are waiting to complete the real experiment when in fact they are unknowingly giving the experimenters the information they are really interested in. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DeceptionPiaget that describes the cognitive balancing of new information with old knowledge. This is a major component of Piaget's theory of childhood cognitive development. Equilibration involves the assimilation of information to fit with an individual's own existing mental schemas and the accommodation of information by adapting it their way of thinking.

For example, a child loves the soups that their family eats on a regular basis. They have developed the schema that all soup is delicious. The child then has dinner at a friend's house and is served a bowl of soup- and hates it. Initially the child is in the assimilation area of Equilibration - they feel that since ALL soup is good then this soup must be good. They repeatedly keep trying it and disliking it. This leads to disEquilibration which is a state of cognitive conflict and stress. In order to alleviate the disEquilibration the child enters the accommodation phase of Equilibration - they adapt their thinking to stop the conflict and realize that not all soup is good and that some of it tastes bad. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equilibrationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Wheel
For example, an ergonomical workstation would be designed with the person using it in mind - the placement of the items that are used would be comfortable, efficient, functional, and safe for the individual using it. Many products are ergonomically designed in that they are made with efficiency and individual comfort in mind. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ergonomicscognitive dissonance and social comparison theory.

Cognitive dissonance theory asserts that people can have two conflicting or inconsistent cognitions or beliefs which produce a state of tension or discomfort (also known as "dissonance"). People are then motivated to reduce the tension by reducing the dissonance, often in the easiest manner possible.

Social comparison theory proposes that individuals use evaluations of themselves against others to provide self-worth. Individuals compare themselves against others in various ways (like SES or physical features) and use these evaluations as a way to assess themselves. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Leon+Festinger
For example, does a naturally extroverted and talkative baby remain that way for their entire life? The stability vs. change debate is one of the fundamental questions in developmental psychology along with nature vs. nurture. Typically cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are used in research concerning stability vs. change. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stability-Change+Debate
Symptoms of ASPD include impulsivity, disregard for the rights of others (both physically and psychologically), not caring about laws or societal norms. Sufferes of ASPD can be superficially charming and glib. They typically suffer from conduct disorder was a child. There is sometimes confusion because ASPD symptoms are the symptoms of a 'psychopath' or 'sociopath'. Although many of the traits are the same the terms psychopath and sociopath are not official diagnoses that a mental health professional could make. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antisocial+Personality+Disorder+%28ASPD%29eyewitness testimony and how accurate the recollection of the events are. Estimator variables cannot be controlled by others.

Examples are how good the witness' vision is, how close the witness was to the event, and how clear the weather and visual conditions were on that day. These variables are influential to the testimony of the witness and cannot be controlled by legal professionals. Opposed to this concept are system variables which can be controlled by individuals. Examples of system variables include how and when a police lineup is arranged and instructions given to the witness. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Estimator+Variables
Examples of enabling include giving money to an addict (like a gambler or drug user) to cover their financial transgressions, repeatedly cleaning up after them when they destroy property while on drugs or alcohol, and constantly bailing them out of jail. Enablers commonly lie to family, friends, and coworkers to 'cover' for the addict. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enabler
The DSM-5 no longer has Asperger's disorder as a separate diagnosis. It is now included as a mild form within the Autism spectrum. There is widespread misconception that vaccines can cause an ASD - there is no scientific evidence to back this up. ASD is considered to be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autism+Spectrum+Disorder+%28ASD%29+
For instance, this can be where a person who doesn't appear to have any specific emotional or behavioral problem seeks help to "get more out of life" such as enhancing relationships or getting ahead at work. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Person-Centered+Therapy+%28PCT%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diencephalonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Follow-Up+Studyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Environmental+Stressorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endogenous+Pacemakers+%28EP%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exogenous+Zeitgebers
Negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, aggression, depression, humiliation are reduced or removed by the individual by various methods of coping. Emotion-focused coping can be positive or negative. Positive examples include talking or writing about their emotions through therapy or journaling, mindful meditation, or distraction with other activities. Negative examples of emotion-focused coping (that typically are not beneficial or helpful in the long term) are suppression of emotions, avoidance, and alcohol or drug use in order to dull or avoid emotions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotion-Focused+Copinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Respondent+Fatiguehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Len+Leccihttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Euphoriahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eyewitness+Testimonyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Continuous+Variablehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discovery+Learningdemand characteristics.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Participant+BiasHuman behavior genetics is a subset of behavioral genetics that researches influences on human behavior. Twin studies are commonly used in behavioral genetics research because they are ideal for teasing apart genetic and environmental influences. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Genetics
An example of a moral panic is a witch hunt such as the McCarthy anti-communist campaign in the 1950s in which a mass hysteria (a moral panic) to identify suspected Communists suspended rationality and caused many innocent people to be persecuted. Another example can be seen in the media's representation of crime. Although a person is less likely to be murdered now than in the 1950s because of the media our perception is that we are much more likely now to be a murder victim than in "the good ol' days."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moral+Panichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anorexigen
One role is the hero who is frequently the oldest child. They try to make things seem normal for the rest of the family and for outsiders. They are helpful and cover up for the family by hiding the dysfunction.

Another role is the scapegoat who is frequently in trouble at home or school. The problems within the family are often blamed on this member when in actuality their behavior problems are most likely caused by the dysfunctional family.

The role most frequently adopted by the youngest child is the mascot. They try to make others feel better and are humorous and entertaining. They may be shielded or protected from the dysfunction by other members of the family.

The lost child is another role. These children handle dysfunction by withdrawing from others. They are loners and appear shy. They avoid the dysfunction by trying to disappear completely.

In dysfunctional households in which addiction is an issue there are two additional roles typically occupied by the parents: the addict and the enabler. The addict is considered a central role in which all of the others are influenced and affected. The enabler or caregiver is the one who covers for the responsibilities of the addict and is typically the one 'holding things together' for the rest of the family. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysfunctional+Family+Roles
One role is the hero who is frequently the oldest child. They try to make things seem normal for the rest of the family and for outsiders. They are helpful and cover up for the family by hiding the dysfunction.

Another role is the scapegoat who is frequently in trouble at home or school. The problems within the family are often blamed on this member when in actuality their behavior problems are most likely caused by the dysfunctional family.

The role most frequently adopted by the youngest child is the mascot. They try to make others feel better and are humorous and entertaining. They may be shielded or protected from the dysfunction by other members of the family.

The lost child is another role. These children handle dysfunction by withdrawing from others. They are loners and appear shy. They avoid the dysfunction by trying to disappear completely.

In dysfunctional households in which addiction is an issue there are two additional roles typically occupied by the parents: the addict and the enabler. The addict is considered a central role in which all of the others are influenced and affected. The enabler or caregiver is the one who covers for the responsibilities of the addict and is typically the one 'holding things together' for the rest of the family. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysfunctional+Familieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enemy+Perception that arises from the adoption of irrational and conflicting beliefs are eliminated by rationalization. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brainwashingemic research in which the focus is one single culture and involves looking at behaviors of a group from the perspective of one member of that group.

An etic study is behavioral research approached across different cultures in order to learn about the universality of behaviors. Both types of studies are common in social sciences and can be used in conjunction with each other. An example of an etic study would be looking at perceptions of threats in humans cross-culturally by showing them a slideshow containing photos of snakes, spiders, and tall heights which are universal fears across the globe. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=EticElaine Hatfield proposed that love occurs due to physiological arousal and individuals applying the label of 'love' to that arousal. She was also involved in research on how external (or situational) factors influence internal factors (like feelings and satisfaction) in interpersonal relationships. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ellen+Berscheidinner ear and are responsible for our sense of balance.

There are three canals: the horizontal, posterior, and superior canals.

They are lined with tiny hairs called cilia which act as motion sensors - they move as we move. They send this information to the brain which allows us to balance as we stand and move. Disruption or damage to the semicircular canals can cause a loss of balance, unstableness, and a loss of hearing. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Semicircular+Canalsethical guidelines of psychologists and means that information between a patient and a therapist cannot be shared with anyone. This applies to patients and any health professional, including doctors and nurses. There are a few exceptions to confidentiality such as the concept of duty to warn which means that confidentiality can be broken if the patient is a threat to themselves (such as being suicidal) or others (threatening to harm another person). The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) protects the confidentiality of health records at a federal level in the United States and includes the confidentiality of therapy and mental health information within it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confidentialitymajority influence. The real participants were placed in a room containing people they thought were fellow participants but were actually confederates who were there to influence the behavior of the real participant. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confederateexposure therapy and/or medication when a situation is known beforehand to be occurring (such as anti-anxiety medication before a plane trip). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Claustrophobiasampling bias which occurs when the sample of the population is not representative of the population at large.

An example of a biased sample could be seen in a person taking a poll of how many people enjoy eating shrimp. The person asks 100 people how they feel about shrimp and 90 people said they enjoyed it. "Wow! 90% of people enjoy shrimp!" thinks the pollster. But they soon realize they have a biased sample- they stationed themselves on a boardwalk outside of many popular seafood restaurants. There were many people walking in that area that liked shrimp because they were headed to and from seafood restaurants. If the pollster had stationed themselves in front of the post office or DMV (somewhere that wouldn't be influenced by particular food tastes) they would have gotten a more accurate representation of the larger population's feelings about shrimp. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biased+Samplehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoiding+Interferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frequency+Polygonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Individual+Differences+%28IDs%29
For example, an individual is more likely to exhibit an activist identity to protest an injustice that occurred in their own community or state than something that occurred in another country. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hierarchy+Of+Salience
For example, in an experiment a participant is asked to choose a word from a list. A good experimenter would have a differing order of the words between participants and groups throughout the study to ensure the participants are not being affected or influenced by the order of the words or the first word on the list.

Another example could be a mood study in which participants are asked to memorize a list of words, try to write them down, and then do a mood survey. Although the words are supposed to be irrelevant in the study the experimenter inadvertently chose words like 'rage', 'fight', and 'aggression' to include on the list. A wording effect occurs and the participants' results are showing to be in aggressive and angry moods because they were influenced subconsciously by the aggression related words on the list. Neutral words like 'sofa' and 'book' would have been better choices. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wording+Effect+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=John+Bowlbyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Socioeconomic+Status+%28SES%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Freedom+To+Withdrawhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phylogeny
An example ITI could be seen in research conditioning mice to react to the color red. A red light is presented to the mice for 20 seconds and then food is given to them. Then 120 seconds later the red light is presented again. So the ITI for this experiment is 140 seconds.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inter-Trial+Intervalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elaine+Hatfield
Examples of SSDRs are freezing, fleeing, or fighting. SSDRs are very difficult to overcome as they are an innate reactions and not acquired behaviors. An example from a lab setting is that pigeons who are close to other pigeons will attack each other if they are shocked- the fearful stimulus causes an SSDR of fighting. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Species-Specific+Defense+Reactions+%28SSDRs%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discrete+Variable
The suppression of the vision startle reflex over time is hypothesized to be the cause of mental breaks in individuals, particularly office workers. This is a concept which needs more research in order to determine its effects on individuals and curtail any possible harmful effects. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subliminal+Distraction
The independent variable condition is based on pre-existing conditions instead of random assignment. Groups are based on subject variables that are already present in the participants.

For example, researchers are interested in the drink choices of Type 2 diabetics. So they form two groups, a group formed of Type 2 diabetes sufferers and a group with no diagnosed diabetics. The researchers then allow them to choose whatever drink they want from many choices in a waiting room before the study 'begins'. They then record what each person chooses and analyze the results. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ex+Post+Facto+Designhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Random+Presentation
For example, a standardized test is given to an entire grade and a particular subgroup of students with shared traits all underperform in comparison to the other students. This can be a sign of invalidity. Why did all of the students with particular shared traits do worse? Possible reasons could be that the test was developed and written by members of the larger group.

Consequential validity can help identify tests that are not measuring things they are supposed to be measuring or that it is falsely measuring those actually taking it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Consequential+Validity
Kohlberg based his research on the work of Piaget and built upon it to develop his own theories.

Kohlberg based his Stages of Moral Development on his belief that moral judgment progresses with age and is primarily concerned with justice. Kohlberg divided his six stages of ethical behavior into 3 stages which are related to age and maturity: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional.

These three are then subdivided into two other stages that describe the moral rationales for the adoption of ethical behaviors. These stages are based on the premise that mastering the lower stages of moral development is essential for aspiring to the higher levels of achievement. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lawrence+Kohlberghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affectional+Needshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pressured+Speechhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Customhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Coprolalia
Sufferers of associative agnosia can draw an object (showing that they can see the object) but cannot name or recognize the object. They have difficulty categorizing objects and can easily confuse items for similar objects (such as confusing a basketball for a pumpkin). Sufferers can name and recognize objects that are described verbally or by using their other senses such as touch and smell.

Associative agnosia is usually caused by damage to the front left temporal lobe resulting from a stroke, brain injury, brain tumors, or cardiac arrest. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Associative+Agnosia+%28also+Known+As+Visual+Object+Agnosia%29
What's the biological and evolutionary advantage to altruistic behavior?

Research by Hardy and Van Vugt has shown that altruistic behaviors occur more when they're public than when an individual is alone. Their research has also shown that the most altruistic individuals reached the highest status in their group and were viewed most positively by their peers. This suggests that altruistic behaviors occur because individuals who perform altruistic acts get a higher status within their group and a better reputation amongst their peers. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Competitive+Altruismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interpersonal+Distance
This method was developed in the 1980s by Fisher and Geiselman in order to increase the relevant information recalled by witnesses in crimes.

Methods in CI include having the individual recall the event using a different perspective and narrative order. Witnesses are encouraged to recall every detail they remember and not just ones that seem relevant or important. The interviewer will also ask questions about the day in particular (unrelated to the crime) in order to put the individual's mind in the context of that day. CI has been shown to increase the accuracy of memories about particular events and increases the recall of pertinent information. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Interview+%28CI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Closed+Questionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Interviewhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Inputhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Charisma
For example, individuals who are right handed have a dominant left hemisphere for language. Remember, the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body. So if you are right handed then your left hemisphere will be dominant over the right hemisphere. This has absolutely nothing to do with the myth of individuals being a 'right brain' or a 'left brain' person. Cerebral dominance is a biological description of the brain. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebral+Dominancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Central+Corehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ventricular+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Baselinehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Audience+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aphonia
Although differing groups are analyzed and compared in regards to independent and dependent variables it is not a true experiment because it lacks random assignment. The assignment of subjects to different groups is based on whichever variable is of interest to the researchers.

For example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences self-esteem levels in adults. So the participants would be separated into differing groups (underweight, normal weight, overweight) and their self esteem levels measured. This is an ex post facto design because a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ex+Post+Facto+Research+Design
An example of unconscious bias could be seen in a job application and interview process. Some words that are used when describing a person can be perceived differently in regards to if it is describing a male or female candidate. The words bold, gutsy, and assertive are viewed as positive qualities for a male applicant while these same words are perceived as negative qualities for a female candidate. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconscious+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aetiological+%28Etiological%29+Validity
The second definition of recode is used in statistical testing. When running statistical tests variables are typically coded which means they are assigned a number (or letter, just any shortened identifying title) in order to make data entry more manageable and go by faster. When doing observational research behaviors of interest are coded so that they can be recorded in a more efficient manner. For example, a researcher doing an observational study on the pro-social characteristics of toddlers might code the common behaviors in order to record them more quickly in a busy play setting. So they might use 1 for toy sharing, 2 for cooperation, 3 for helping behaviors, 4 for hugs/physical contact, etc. To recode means that you change the code from the initial choice to another for some other reason. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recodehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Functional+Attitudes+Theory
For instance, a student with a good grade average may feel that a low or failing grade in one difficult class is an occurrence that overwhelms, or at least completely neutralizes, having received high grades in the remainder of their coursework. For some people this type of failure can negatively effect their self-esteem and self-confidence.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+%28or+Negativity%29+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Binding+Problemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Scaled+Score
An example of this might be to socialize puppies and kittens to human interaction by positively interacting with them every 20 minutes in order to encourage the understanding that contact with humans is positive and desirable. The interaction would occur regardless of the behavior of the animal. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Noncontingent+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mediator+Variablehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Memory+Storagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquired+Dyslexia
It is when a situation starts small and gets built up increasing in power and momentum as it grows.

A snowball effect can be negative or positive.

An example would be a political or social situation that angered a group of people. They go to protest and they are confronted by the opposition with aggression. This would cause more attention to be focused on the situation and cause more people to become aware of it. More individuals begin to protest and the backlash increases in response. The increase in attention causes more people to become involved and causes it to build. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Snowball+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=+Parapraxishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuroticism
You have probably experienced this if you have ever returned to the home where you grew up, or a school that you used to attend. When you do this memories of events that happened there came more readily to mind.

A practical application of this might be in physically reenacting an event to remember some detail. For example, if you have misplaced your car keys, try going through the sequence of actions for the last time you came into your house and you might find where you left them.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Context+Dependent+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Law+%28or+Principle%29+Of+Positive+Reinforcement
For instance, a child might find it preferable to outwardly agree with what an adult is saying rather than speaking their mind. This relates to the human desire to not offend or anger others, as well as to present a positive representation of themselves. This tendency, unfortunately, can severely skew the results of psychological research if an excessive amount of emphasis is placed on the results of personal interviews, interactions and direct observations. Some methods of guarding against this are using anonymous self-report instruments and covert observation (such as through a two-way mirror).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Response+Sethttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditory+Association+Areahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Mediational+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Arcuate+Nucleushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anticonvulsantshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anticipatory+Anxietyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anoxia
For example, when asked what an apple is, a sufferer of anomia wouldn't be able to recall the word apple. They would try to find the word they are looking for and frequently use the fragments "Um" and "Uh" as they are trying to remember the correct word. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anomia
Children frequently believe that their toys have feelings. For example, a child wouldn't want to leave their teddy bear outside for fear that it might get cold at night and be lonely without them. They are attaching human qualities and feelings to an inanimate object. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Animismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phencyclidine+%28PCP%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Androstenedione
There are variations of AIS. Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS) is diagnosed when the individual has the sexual features of a female but does not have a uterus and doesn't menstruate (therefore being infertile). They are genetically male but have the physical features of a female.

Incomplete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome can present itself as the individual having sexual features of both male and female. There is also Mild Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (MAIS) in which the individual has mostly physical male characteristics but they may have mild feminine characteristics. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Androgen+Insensitivity+Syndrome+%28AIS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anandamidehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Analgesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amyloidshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amusiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ampullahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Androcentrism
A real life example of how this is metaphorically used in psychology is depression. Some people with depression have been shown to have brain differences such as shrinkage. Do these brain differences cause depression or does depression cause these differences? Another example is that psychopaths have a high incidence of frontal lobe abnormalities. Do these abnormalities cause psychopathy to develop or does the psychopathic personality cause these changes? ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chicken+And+Egg+Scenariohttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Permissive+Parenting
Now you can feel it because you are actively thinking of it. So there is a suggestion there is a mechanism of sorts that limits the amount of information we pay attention to. How does the bottleneck work? What is filtered out? Broadbent proposed early selection - that physical characteristics of messages are used to select one message for further processing and all others are lost. In 1963 Deutsch & Deutsch proposed that all messages get through, but that only one response can be made which was coined late selection.

Then in 1964 Treisman proposed attenuation which suggests that physical characteristics are used to select one message for full processing and other messages are given partial processing. Research suggests that attenuation is most likely the most influential theory as to the filtering process of the bottleneck. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bottleneck+Theory+executive functions which are cognitive functions like reasoning, attention, problem solving, organizing, planning, and timing. Executive functions manage and regulate mental processes.

Two opposing components of executive functions are hot and cold cognition.

Hot cognition are executive functions that are influenced by emotion. Arousal (both mental and physical stimulation) occurs when emotions influence behavior and this affects our cognition. It involves cognitive processes that are influenced by arousal and current emotions. Hot cognition is very fast and is frequently biased and may not be the appropriate reaction. It is an automatic process that is mostly influenced by emotion.

The other side of the executive function spectrum is cold cognition. it can be described as cognitive functions and thinking that are logical and based on reason. Emotions are not as influential in cold cognition as they are in hot cognition.

An example of hot cognition would be immediately disliking and being rude to your friend's ex when meeting them for the first time. The person may actually be a very nice person but the judgment and behaviors are inappropriate because they are influenced by emotion. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hot+Cognitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Afferent+Neurons+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affectionless+Psychopathyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thedor+Adorno+
An example would be forgetting to stop at the store on your routine drive home. Although you intended to stop the familiar and repetitive task of driving a familiar route made you forgot your intended stop. Essentially, action slips are mistakes that occur because of absent-mindedness. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Action+Slipshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accessibilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Arbitrationcorpus callosum. It is responsible for cognitive, physiological, and emotional functions. The ACC has a part in the regulation of blood pressure and heart rate. Preparation, anticipation, and decision making processes activate the ACC along with regulating emotions. The Stroop test engages the ACC which is evidence that it is essential for error detection. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anterior+Cingulate+Cortex+%28ACC%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relational+Responding
Synonymous with a witch hunt, this concept is named after Joseph McCarthy, a senator who in the 1950s led an aggressive campaign to identify and persecute people with suspected Communist sensibilities and/or affiliations. Most of the people put on trial by McCarthy were innocent and many had their lives and careers ruined. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=McCarthyism
A classic example in psychology are the studies by Solomon Asch in the 1950s. In his experiments participants were put in a room with other people that they were led to believe were other participants but were in fact confederates, which are experimenters pretending to be participants. When asked which line on a board was the longest the confederates would respond by choosing a line that wasn't the longest. This would frequently cause the real participant to choose the same line even though it clearly wasn't the longest.

Over the course of 12 trials the results showed that participants conformed to the majority influence of the confederates and chose the non-longest line over 75% of the time. This is an example of majority influence in that change occurred in an individual due to the influence of the larger group of people.

The opposing concept of majority influence is minority influence which is when the beliefs and actions of a smaller group socially influences the larger majority. An example of this is the US suffragette movement in the early 1900s in which the initial hard work of a small group resulted in women getting the right to vote.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Majority+Influencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synaptic+Clefthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expressive+Aggressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aligning+ActionsPropinquity,the increased likelihood of developing a relationship with someone due to closeness in proximity, is influenced by not only physical distance but functional distance as well.

For example, a person in a city may be very close physically to the person that lives across the alley from them in another building but the functional distance is high in the fact that they are not likely to come into contact with the other person very often. But that same individual would have a close functional distance to a person who lives on the same floor as them and uses the same lobby, mail room, laundry room, and gym making them more likely to develop a social relationship with that person. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Functional+Distance
Instead of embracing an innate biological capacity for language (like the Language Acquisition Device developed by Noam Chomsky) this theory proposes that language and cognition are learned through interactions in the environment. Relational frames are formed and are used to infer relationships between objects and concepts that are based on earlier personal experiences and knowledge.

For example, a young child is initially taught what objects are in a very direct and well explained manner. ("This is chocolate. It is candy. It tastes yummy.") Eventually, a relational frame is built so that the child can infer information about objects based on their past experience. This relational frame allows to child to know when an unknown object is identified as candy that it is like chocolate, is edible, and will taste good. This example shows RFT at work in that the child is relating new objects and concepts to previously known things. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relational+Frame+Theory+%28RFT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abducens+Nervehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absence+Seizurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acamprosatehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accessory+Olfactory+Bulbhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acetylcholinesterase+%28AChE%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebral+Achromatopsiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenocorticotropic+Hormone+%28ACTH%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Actinhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AdenosineBroca's aphasia and is the inability or difficulty in understanding and using grammar. It is highlighted by issues with verb tense and the order of words. For example, instead of saying "The man is sitting in the chair" a person experiencing agrammatism might say "The man is sit in chair".]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agrammatismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pure+Alexia+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Akinesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Akinetopsiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alpha+Motor+Neuronshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retaliatory+Aggression
Vygotsky believed that the elementary mental functions (attention, perception, memory, and sensation) would be shaped and formed by the social environment to eventually develop into higher mental functions. Vygotsky also developed the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development which is the range of tasks that are too difficult for a person to learn alone, but can be learned with guidance from someone with experience in the task.

Vygotsky died of tuberculosis at the age of 38. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lev+Vygotsky
Running amok is considered a syndrome in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia (or 'mal de pelea' in Puerto Rico) but not recognized in any other culture. The DSM-V does not specifically mention the term culture-bound syndrome and attempts to explain this concept in a different and less culturally biased way. It has been replaced with a three-tiered explanation of 1) cultural syndromes, 2) cultural idioms of distress, and 3) cultural explanations of distress or perceived causes.

Another example of this concept that is included in the DSM-V is a khyâl attack ("wind attack") which occurs in Cambodian populations. It is an anxiety attack characterized by being dizzy, having palpitations and/or a sore neck, and shortness of breath. It can be brought on by fright, worry, standing up, riding in vehicles, and crowds. The descriptions of the attack are specific to Cambodian culture and their perceptions of the disorder and symptoms. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Culture-Bound+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+ResemblanceStructured observation is an example of an unobtrusive measure - there is no direct interaction with the participants, only observation from a distance. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unobtrusive+Measureshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unrepressed+Unconscious
An example of this would be in a wolf pack when one bares teeth and growls a another who is trying to steal food. Growing up in the pack the wolves learn that this signal means to back off because there is an intention of violence if they don't.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intention+Movement+
Coding is using previously determined specific behaviors or actions that qualify as manifestations of the behavior of interest. For example, a developmental psychologist is interested in helping behaviors in toddlers. They want to use structured observation so a coding method is developed. They identify which behaviors or actions qualify as helping behaviors (helping another child who has fallen or hurt themselves, sharing a toy or snack, finding a lost item for another, etc). Whenever the researcher observes one of these behaviors it is marked down. Coding allows for observations to be quantitative. The opposite of this is casual observation which is not structured and is informal with no coding. This is typically common in the initial stages of research when the methodology is still being developed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Structured+Observationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motivational+Interviewinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shame-Rage+Cyclehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Archival+Researchhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Response+Topographyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automatic+Encodinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Morphologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Assignment+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vicarious+Conditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discriminative+Stimulushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agnosiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equivalent+Forms+Reliabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Johari+Windowhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cross-Sequential+Design
For example, you are testing the theory of gravity. The hypothesis that you are investigating is that whenever a heavy item is dropped it will fall to the ground when dropped. You experiment with several heavy items and find that each time one is dropped it falls to the ground. This hypothesis can be said to corroborate the theory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypothetico-Deductive+Methodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parsimonioushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Egocentric+Thought+And+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motor+Reflexeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relational+Aggressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Response+Chainhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Political+Process+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Types+Of+Monocular+Cues++https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Arachnophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Avoidance-Avoidance+Conflicthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Approach-Avoidance+Conflicthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Approach-Approach+Conflict++Social Identity Theory and is when a social group is made to appear more positive and valued by using verbal and non-verbal cues. Individuals seek to build and maintain positive distinctiveness for their group. Positive esteem is essential for a group and it is usually attained by a comparison to an outgroup on some dimension ('we are better than they are'). Increased ingroup/outgroup thinking (us vs. them) makes the groups more stratified and increases the positive perception of the group.

A common example can be seen with sports teams. Fans often compare themselves to rivals and use positive distinctiveness to elevate the esteem of their team.

More information on ingroup.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+DistinctivenessErik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Identity crisis can occur during adolescence and is characterized by the failure to develop ego identity. The ego identity normally develops before adulthood and is necessary to leave the adolescent stage and function as an adult. Without a development of identity in adolescence an identity crisis can occur with symptoms such as social withdrawal, negative behaviors (like crime or drugs), and uncertainty about identity or goals. Identity foreclosure can lead to an identity crisis. Development of identity is the most important factor in avoiding an identity crisis. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identity+Crisiscontinuous reinforcement which is when the organism receives the reinforcement every time the desired response is performed. For example, on a continuous reinforcement schedule a mouse who pulls a lever would receive food (reinforcement) every single time it pulled the lever. On an intermittent reinforcement schedule the mouse would only receive food every few times (it is typically random and unpredictable). There is an increased likelihood the desired behavior will continue with intermittent reinforcement conditioning and the behavior lasts longer than continuous reinforcement. Gambling is an example of intermittent reinforcement. You don't win every time or win the same amount when using a slot machine- this wouldn't be exciting or fun. The reinforcement is intermittent and causes a positive and euphoric response in the brain that in some circumstances can lead to gambling addiction. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intermittent+Reinforcementdispositional factors that are are individual characteristics that influence behavior and actions in a person like personality traits, temperament, and genetics. People tend to cite dispositional factors as the reason for success ("I passed the test because I am smart", "I worked hard for that grade") where people tend to blame failure on situational factors ("The test wasn't fair", "The teacher doesn't like me").]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Situational+Factors+%28also+Known+As+External+Factors%29situational factors which are influences like the environment and others around you. People tend to cite dispositional factors as the reason for success ("I passed the test because I am smart", "I worked hard for that grade") where people tend to blame failure on situational factors ("The test wasn't fair", "The teacher doesn't like me").]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dispositional+Factors+%28also+Known+As+Internal+Factors%29
This is a type of metacognition ('thinking about thinking') because you are aware that you know the word and just can't recall it. This is thought to be cognitively related to the concept of retrieval induced forgetting.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tip-of-the-Tongue+%28TOT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anterior+Cingulate+CortexTraits are long standing patterns of behavior that are typically used to identify a person. This approach identifies personality traits and measures individuals on how much of each trait they display. Traits are usually measured on a spectrum.

Gordon Allport was the first psychologist to use a trait approach to study personality. He identified 4,000 traits in 1936 and divided them into three categories: central traits, secondary traits, and cardinal traits. Central traits dominate a person's behavior and personality. Secondary traits are not as important to a person's identity and can be situational by only occurring occasionally (like being afraid of heights). A cardinal trait is one central trait that becomes dominant to a person's personality.

Cattell continued the trait approach and narrowed down Allport's traits to 16.

Eysenck identified three trait domains: introversion/extroversion, neuroticism/emotional stability, and psychoticism. A current approach to trait theory is the Big 5 personality trait theory which breaks down personality into five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, aggreableness, and neuroticism. An advantage of trait theory is that it is objective because it uses statistical data. A disadvantage is that it doesn't explain why or how traits develop or any interactions between traits. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trait+Theory+Of+Personality determinism and behaviorism .

Behaviorists are supporters of determinism because they believe that the environment is the only determinant of behavior. They believe there is no free will and no internal roots of behavior. Behaviorists believe that behavior is conditioned by the environment and determinism supports this theory. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behaviorism-Determinist+PerspectivePsychosocial Stages of Development Theory. This theory is comprised of eight distinct stages that span from infancy to later adulthood. Each of the eight stages is marked by a conflict which must be successfully resolved in order to attain a favorable outcome, which he called "virtues." The goal must be completed in order to advance to the next stage. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erikson%27s+Theory
The opposite of this is imposter syndrome which is when very competent individuals tend to think they are less competent than others. Common examples of the Dunning-Kruger effect are politicians and celebrities who make bold incorrect claims about scientific matters without fully understanding the subject, like climate change or vaccinations. As Charles Darwin once said "Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dunning-Kruger+Effect
The five cognitive-affective units are encoding (how information is processed, stored, and used), beliefs/expectations (what outcomes an individual expects from their actions), goals/values (life goals and rewards for behavior), affect (how a person reacts emotionally), and competencies/self-regulation (general intelligence, knowledge, and abilities). These units vary between individuals and personality develops according to how these cognitive-affective qualities interact with situational variables and the environment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive-Affective+Processing+System+%28CAPS%29
This theory explains how someone can be very effective in one leadership situation but not be effective as a leader in a different scenario. It stresses the importance of developing a varied range of leadership qualities and being able to adapt to changing situations. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contingency+Theory
For example, when you take a multiple choice Introductory Psychology test, a factor analysis can be done to see what types of questions you did best on and worst on (maybe they did best on factual types of questions but really poorly on conceptual types of questions). Factors are taken from a data set and then rotation of the different factors typically occurs.

Rotation methods simplify factors and make results more reliable and easier to interpret. Rotation methods in which correlations between the factors are allowed are oblique. Rotations where factors are not correlated are orthogonal. So rotation methods that are correlated are oblique while rotation of uncorrelated factors is orthogonal. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Orthogonal+And+Oblique+Rotation+Methods
For example, a person with apperceptive agnosia may use the texture, shape, and smell of a melon to identify it because they don't have the ability to simply look at the object and identify it as a melon. Apperceptive agnosia is caused by brain damage (such as stroke or brain injury) but there is no specific area of the brain that when damaged results in developing this specific agnosia. Different sufferers do not have brain damage in the same area but damage near the occipital lobe is correlated with apperceptive agnosia. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apperceptive+Agnosia+%28also+Known+As+Visual+Space+Agnosia%29
For example, when driving a person almost rear ends the car in front of them. Someone with an internal explanatory style might say, "Wow, I wasn't paying attention" while a person with an external explanatory style would say, "That person came out of nowhere!"]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Explanatory+Style
Vicious cycle is used to describe a negative pattern of events while a virtuous cycle is the same pattern but has positive events or outcomes.

An example of a vicious cycle is poverty. An individual who lives in poverty has no money to improve their situation socially or by education. They have no money to pay bills resulting in late fees and high interest which make them more poor. Their children are raised in poverty with no access to educational advantages and fall into the same cycle as their parents. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vicious+Cycle+
An example would be attending a birthday party with a young relative. The child asks you what is going to happen at the party and you tell them there is going to be food, a cake with candles, gifts, and singing. Although you don't know specifically what is going to happen at this particular birthday party you have formed a social schema about birthday parties that was informed by attending them in the past. You used a social schema to fill in unknown information. Social schemas can also shape perception. If you encounter someone yelling loudly repeatedly it may make you scared unless you are at a sporting event and using social schemas know that this is just a fan cheering for their team. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Schemas
An example of a haptic memory would be recalling what a peach feels like. When you recall it in your mind, you can remember the feeling of the fuzzy skin and softness of the peach. The ability to retain haptic memories develops early in infancy as it is important for feeding. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Haptic+Memory
Synaptic plasticity is the strengthening and weakening of synapses.

There are two types of synaptic plasticity: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic (or homosynaptic plasticity) is strength change due to the synapse's own activity. Extrinsic (or heterosynaptic plasticity) is strength change due to activity in another synapse or pathway. Synaptic plasticity is important in learning, memory, recall, and retention. More synapses with stronger connections signify a high functioning and more efficient cognitive system for memories and learning. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synaptic+Plasticity
Studies like the Stanford Prison Experiment (where normal people who were randomly chosen as a prison "guard" started to exhibit aggressive and punitive behaviors towards the participants randomly assigned to be "prisoners") are often cited as supporting evidence that situational factors are the most influential determining qualities for personality. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Situationism
For example, a person who is an artist or a writer chose that role- it isn't a social identity that was given to them by others. The opposite of this is an ascribed role which an individual has no influence over (like being European or a teenager). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achieved+Role
For example, in the US a person is considered a teenager when they are ages 13-18. A person who is from Europe is called a European. The opposite of this is an achieved role which is one that an individual has chosen or earned. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ascribed+Rolehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Naive+Idealismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurocognitive+Disorders+%28NCDs%29
Constructs are unique and vary from person to person because they are formed based on individual experiences. This theory differed from behaviorism and psychoanalysis when it was introduced because it placed emphasis on an individual's influence on their personality instead of focusing solely on the environment or the unconscious.

For example, two friends are at a carnival and see a roller coaster. The first person gets excited and immediately wants to ride it. The second person is horrified, has a fear response, and wants to go on another ride. Personal construct theory would suggest these two different responses are explained by differing constructs- the two people have different individual experiences and mental frameworks that make them perceive the roller coaster in wildly different ways. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personal+Construct+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pragmatismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Mirror+Theory
For example, if you were to stare at a green sheet of paper for an extended period of time, and then switch your focus to a white sheet of paper, an afterimage would appear on the white page. Negative afterimages are cause by stimulation fatigue from your eyes' receptors. Positive afterimages occur less frequently, last a short duration, and are the same color as the original stimulus. For a positive afterimage to occur the stimulus must be very bright (like the sun). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Afterimagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anonymityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Orthopedicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Harmony
There are three categories of cognitive structures.

* The first are comparative thinking structures like memorization and classifying.

* The second is symbolic representation structures like math, gestures, dance, and music.

* The third is logical reasoning structures like reasoning, cause and effect, evaluation, and problem solving.

Cognitive structures can be developed over time. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Structureshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subject+Variables
These are all normative scores but they differ between the groups. Relativity of norms is a concept of determining which group is most relevant to what information you want. If the information most important is how the student compared to others in their area then the local scores would be used. If the student wants to attend the prestigious university then those scores would be more important. This concept just addresses how normative scores can be different and how the same score can be viewed differently depending on which sample is looked at. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relativity+Of+Normshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lightner+Witmer+
This reorganization of the pathways in our brain takes place at an astounding rate when we are young and rapidly acquiring new information, but the brains of adults are also “plastic” to a degree. There is evidence that, in patients with brain damage, healthy brain areas can take over for injured areas and adopt new functions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuroplasticityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Impairment+
This measure can be used at all age levels with three different versions used for differing groups: the Standard Progressive Matrices, Coloured Progressive Matrices (for children, the elderly, or developmentally challenged individuals) and Advanced Progressive Matrices (used for higher intelligence adults).

Research has shown that individuals with Asperger's Syndrome score higher on RPM than other individuals. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Raven%27s+Progressive+Matrices+%28RPM%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Referencing
The three main components of this theory state that people anticipate consistency, inconsistencies create imbalance and dissonance in individuals, and that tension motivates the individuals to create consistency in order to achieve balance. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Consistency
This school of thought contends that ignoring bad thoughts and forcing good thoughts is a bad practice that doesn't last and can ultimately cause mental suffering. By breathing, focusing on thoughts in general and not forcing any idea away are main tenets of mindfulness meditation. It is not a type of meditation that focuses on not thinking and trying to have a blank mindset. Mindfulness meditation is about awareness of the present and whatever thoughts and ideas are currently important. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mindfulness+Meditationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Institutionalization
The DSM used five different dimensions or axes in order to rate and evaluate patients.

Axis I includes clinical disorders like depression, anxiety disorders, and bipolar disorder.

Axis II was comprised of personality disorders (like narcissistic personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and schizoid personality disorder) and developmental disorders like being mentally handicapped.

Axis III includes medical conditions like brain injury and medical disorders.

Axis IV is concerned with psychosocial and environmental conditions.

Axis V is the 'Global assessment of functioning' which is a scale that rates the social, work, and mental functioning of individuals. It is used to determine how well they live and adapt in their world. The multiaxial approach was used in the DSM until the DSM-5 was introduced in 2013. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multiaxial+Approach
Modern research has built on this theory and shown that a deficit of DA in the prefrontal cortex is responsible for the 'negative' symptoms of schizophrenia (like flattened affect, social problems, anhedonia) and too much DA transmission is responsible for the 'positive' symptoms of schizophrenia like delusions and hallucinations. Current research is still focusing on this theory but it is believed to only be one component of a more complex set of circumstances that cause schizophrenia to arise. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dopamine+%28DA%29+Hypothesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Significance+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Determination+Theory+%28SDT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Violence+Viewing+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alternate+Form+Reliability+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evidence+Based+Practice+%28EBP%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Principle+Of+Proximityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interchannel+Discrepancieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychological+Realism+
Examples of this can be seen in animal experiments. When the animal is first learning what the desired behavior is through reinforcement and punishment it can become confused and stressed. This stress can cause abnormal behavior like aggression or fear of the experimenter which would not be present during normal circumstances. Pavlov noticed in his experiments with dogs that when the dogs were very confused and unable to distinguish between stimuli they would growl and act aggressive towards the experimenters which was abnormal behavior for the well trained dogs. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimental+Neurosis
The second type of testing is method of constant in which the stimulus is presented randomly instead of ascending or descending order. This prevents the subjects from expectations and responding too hastily because they are anticipating the stimulus to increase or decrease.

The third type of testing is method of adjustment in which the subject is in control of the stimulus level and is typically asked to alter it until it is barely there. The stimulus will not be present and the subject is asked to adjust it until it is noticeable. This is usually repeated several times and an average is taken of all of the scores. Which method of testing to use depends on the experiment and what resources the researchers have. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Method+Of+Limitshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anima+And+Animushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trephinationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secure+Self-Esteem+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defensive+Self-Esteem
For PTSD as a result of military action the patient will describe the environment to the therapist. A computer program will create a similar landscape where the situations occurred. Audio, vibrations, and even smells are used in order to make the virtual environment as close to the real one as possible. The patient will then virtually be in this environment and will retell their traumatic memories to a therapist who is helping and guiding them throughout the process. After doing this repeatedly the stress response, fear, and anxiety will decrease or disappear because the patient is in a safe place while the traumatic event is going on virtually. For phobias, virtual representations of the fear stimulus (heights, spiders, etc) can decrease and eliminate the fear response.

This is a recent and very promising type of therapy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Virtual+Reality+Exposure+Therapy+%28VRET%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Free+Floating+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Manipulation+Motive
He originally identified two areas of temperament: neuroticism and extroversion/introversion. Neuroticism is a temperament level that ranges from calm to nervous. The extroversion and introversion area of temperament is a range between shyness and an outgoing nature. On this spectrum individuals vary widely. Later on, Eysenck added a third area of psychoticism to incorporate people with mental illness. The EPQ contains 100 yes/no questions on the normal version with a short scale that contains 48 questions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eysenck+Personality+Questionnaire+%28EPQ%29
Individuals with dependent personality disorders have problems with work and social situations and need their caretakers close in order to feel comfortable. Children with chronic illness or separation issues are more likely to develop dependent personality disorder in adulthood.

Symptoms can include an inability to assume responsibility, troubles making decisions and starting projects, difficulty disagreeing with others, and submissive behaviors. The fear of being alone is disruptive and pervasive and if a close relationship ends the dependent individual will frantically try to replace them.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dependent+Personality+Disorder
RIF occurs when an individual is trying to retrieve a specific memory. Closely related words and memories 'compete' with the memory you are trying to remember causing a temporary forgetfulness. This phenomenon occurs naturally frequently but can also be induced in laboratory settings.

An example would be you are trying to recommend a restaurant to a friend that you ate at previously. You can recall the location, what type of food they serve, the color of the building, and even the first letter of the name. But you can't recall the actual name of the restaurant. An hour later when you are not trying hard to recall the name of the restaurant you find that it comes naturally and easily to you. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrieval+Induced+Forgetting+%28RIF%29
The NS is what you want to become a conditioned stimulus (CS).

So to use a Pavlovian example, an experimenter rings a bell (NS) before they present the food (UCS). Eventually the bell will cause salivation without the presentation of food which is when it becomes a CS. In backward conditioning, the US (food) is presented to a dog before the NS (a bell). Therefore, the dog does not associate the bell with food and the NS will not become a CS and cause salivation on its own. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Backward+Conditioning+%28Backward+Pairing%29
Within a short amount of time the guards became extremely aggressive towards the prisoners, so much that the experiment had to be shortened due to the severity of their treatment. The Lucifer effect describes when a situation turns normal 'good' people into perpetuators of immoral or 'evil' behaviors. The name comes from the mythological story that Lucifer was a good angel who became evil and was banished for his actions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lucifer+Effect
There are the two main areas involved with cognitive control: organization and regulation.

When the executive functions are not working properly it can cause abnormal behavior in individuals that can interfere with work and social situations and cause difficulty with independence, planning, and organizing. Depression, attentional disorders like ADHD, and learning difficulties can result from abnormal cognitive control functioning. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Executive+Functions+
An item analysis is a post hoc test which means it is a measure used after the test has been taken. Many teachers use an item analysis after a test to be certain all of the questions are fair.

For example, a teacher runs an item analysis after her students latest exam and notices that all of the students missed question five. This suggests that question five is not acceptable for some reason because there should never be a question that all of the students missed. The teacher looks at the exam and realizes a question from the next section accidentally got formatted into the exam and the students have not been taught this concept. The question is then discarded and the teacher doesn't penalize the students for this bad question. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Item+Analysis
Cognitive biases can alter the perceptions of an interviewer along with the mood and preconceptions that the interviewer has. This phenomenon can occur due to the interviewer looking back at previous hires - in business, for instance, they are more likely to follow the careers of the successful people they hire and that makes their interviewing skills seem more proficient than they actually are. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interviewer+Illusion
Although he recognized the importance of the environment on behavior he believed that personality traits developed from mostly biological origins. Eysenck's main focus was on temperament which he saw as long term patterns of behavior.

He originally identified two areas of temperament: neuroticism and extroversion/introversion.

Neuroticism is a temperament level that ranges from calm to nervous. Eysenck theorized that this aspect of personality was influenced by the sympathetic nervous system which is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response. People who were high in neuroticism levels have issues with anxiety and panic attacks.

The extroversion and introversion area of temperament is a range between shyness and an outgoing nature. Individuals vary widely on this spectrum.

Later on Eysenck added a third area of psychoticism to incorporate people with mental illness. Ensynck's theories were influential because they propose a cause of personality traits which most personality theories do not account for. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hans+Eysenckhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epidemiologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Divided+Attentionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stroboscopic+Effect
The Kuleshov Effect shows that people attribute emotions to images and their perception of these emotions can change even when presented with the same identical image. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kuleshov+Effect
There is a psychological component to this in the knowledge that many of the accused were different in some way from the majority of the group. This shows basic ingroup-outgroup thinking which can lead to negative consequences.

An example of a more modern metaphorical witch hunt can be seen with the McCarthy Communist trials in the 1940s and 1950s where many Americans were accused of harboring Communist sentiments and were put on trial. Many (if not most) of the accused were innocent and many citizens had their life ruined. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Witch+Hunthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pop-Out+Effect+%28also+Known+As+Pop-Out+Phenomenon%29
This is a Behaviorist theory in that it places emphasis on the importance of the environment in influencing behavior. An organism is more likely to continue a behavior if the consequences are positive. An organism is less likely to continue a behavior if the consequences are negative. Motivation is powered by external forces in the environment. Reinforcements like food and money make it more likely that an organism will continue behaviors that lead to these rewards in the future.

If a mouse in a lab setting pushes a button and receives food it will continue to push the button in hopes that it will receive food again. If the mouse receives a shock when it pushes a button it will be less likely to continue pushing the button because it led to a negative outcome. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Incentive+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reactance+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Superiority+Complex
They also work with workers who are already within the organization by making sure employees are satisfied in the workplace and the relationships between managers and other employees are proper. Typically personnel psychologists work in business or educational settings with human resources being a common department. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personnel+Psychology
Increasing perceived competence can be accomplished by starting with small goals and tasks and increasing upwards to a level where the group or individual is most capable. Rewards and praise are important in increasing perceived competence along with constructive feedback. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceived+Competence
An example can be seen when you go to the grocery store. You park, get a cart, walk down the aisles getting what you need, you check out, take your groceries to the car, load them, return the cart, and drive away. This is a typical and expected scenario to encounter when you go to the store and is a behavioral script that has been developed and fine tuned over time. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Script+
There are two components to the nonconscious. The first is preconscious which is information that is not currently being thought about but can be retrieved easily. Examples of preconscious thoughts are memories or information that isn't thought about until it is primed by a reminder. You may not currently be thinking about that leftover pizza in the fridge but when someone says the word 'pizza' you remember and get excited.

The second component of the nonconscious is the unconscious. These are the processes that we are unaware of like cognition or multitasking. The unconscious is important when driving. You are looking at the road, traffic signs and signals, and speedometer. Your foot is controlling the gas pedal and brakes and your hands are controlling the wheel. And all of this is being done while you can have a conversation with a friend in the passenger seat. You are mostly unaware of the plethora of nonconscious though processes that are going on at any moment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nonconscious
Linneberg believed that there was an innate biological capacity for language that only humans have. Evidence for this is that language universally appears at the same age across the entire human species no matter what situational or cultural factors exist. Language is continually present in humans over time and doesn't get 'lost' and not used. More evidence can be seen in that humans develop and learn language in a predictable progression that occurs in stages. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eric+Linneberg+
Identical twin DNA does change slightly throughout their lives because the environment can turn different genes on or off. Monozygotic twins are valuable research subjects because of their unique genetic circumstances. Twins who were raised in different households (due to adoption for example) often have similar traits, behaviors, habits, and likes. Sometimes they even drive the same vehicle and have the same type of job. This shows evidence of a genetic influence over these factors because the twins share the same genes but not the same environment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Monozygotic+Twins+%28Identical+Twins%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proximodistal+Development+
To progress beyond this stage a person must develop their own identity by questioning their traits and exploring other options.

An example would be a 12 year old who says they are a member of the political party their parents support. They have chosen this identity for themselves but hasn't questioned why, or explored other ideas or options. Typically the late teens and early adulthood are when people begin to question their identity which leads to a progression from this stage. Sometimes an identity crisis can cause a person to leave the identity foreclosure stage. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identity+Foreclosure+
The timing of the testing is important - the information is more likely to be remembered if tested the day after learning rather than a week after learning. The testing effect is related to the forgetting curve which shows that the most rapid loss of information occurs within the first few days after learning the new information.

This effect shows the importance of reviewing and testing yourself on new concepts within a few days of learning. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Testing+Effect
An example is enzymatic deactivation is seen with acetylcholinesterase (AChE). AChE is an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine so that it is no longer effective. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enzymatic+Deactivation+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parasomniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prospect+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Medulla+Oblongata
An emic research study is the opposite of an etic study in which the behavioral research approach is across various cultures to learn about the universality of behaviors. Emic studies are common in social sciences. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychokinesis
Symptoms can appear similar to mania and risk-taking behaviors are common. Disinhibition can be a results of brain injury or brain lesions, typically in the frontal lobe. Treatment for disinhibition is most commonly behavior therapy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disinhibitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hidden+Observer+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ames+Roomhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Modesty+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Histrionic+Personality+Disorder
The term narcotic is also used in a legal context to mean a psychoactive substance that is prohibited or restricted by the government.

For example, marijuana and LSD are not narcotics in the traditional sense but are classified as such by some states. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Narcotic
The symptoms of a major depressive episode typically subside once the shock and emotional consequences of the stressor have disappeared. To be diagnosed with a major depressive episode five or more of the following symptoms must be present for at least 2 weeks: depressed mood, no affect, anhedonia, weight gain or loss, sleep issues, lethargy, fatigue, lowered self-worth, a decrease in cognitive abilities, or suicidal thoughts. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Major+Depressive+Episode
There are some main questions that are asked in this debate.

Is behavior controlled by our personality or by the situational factors around us?

Is personality formed from situational factors that influence us or innate traits that we are born with?

Is a person's behavior a result of their personality or the situational factors they are presented with?

This debate is particularly strong between personality psychologists (who use a personality trait approach to understanding individual behavior) and situationists who believe that behavior is decided and governed by the situational factors that are present. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Person-Situation+Controversy
Kagan was interested in biological factors that are innate and can influence behavior. Kagan did long term research studies that followed individuals from infancy to adulthood. The results showed that anxious babies grew up to be anxious adults no matter what life situations and environment they were exposed to. This suggests that some personality traits like temperament come from biological factors which are not influenced by the environment. The biological factors at play influence how vulnerable a child is to emotions.

Kagan believed that biology and environmental factors were both important in the development of personality and behaviors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jerome+Kagan+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retinotopy
During a visual search a person uses cues like color, shape, and size to distinguish objects from one another.

There are two stages that comprise this theory.

The first is the pre-attention stage in which the individual focuses on one distinguishing attribute of the object. The pre-attention phase is an automatic process which happens unconsciously. The second stage is focused attention in which an individual takes all of the observed features and combines them to make a complete perception.

This second stage process occurs if the object doesn't stand out immediately. For example, if you were looking for a penny in a handful of quarters it would be easy to spot and only require pre-attention focus. If you were looking for a nickel in a handful of quarters it would be more difficult to spot because of the same color and similar size- focused attention would be required to spot the nickel. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Feature+Integration+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Materialismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensitivityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Olfactory+Nervehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prolactin+%28PRL%29+
The other component in cultural perception is real culture which is composed of the values, norms, and ethics that are actually followed by a society in reality.

Ideal culture values are unwavering and absolute while in real culture exceptions are made to the rules and ethics of the society. An example of the difference between the perceived ideal culture and real culture can be seen in many national governments. While the highest national beliefs are that all people are equal and free (ideal culture) in many cases it isn't true. The real culture is often comprised of discrimination with many individuals not being treated equally. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ideal+Culture+
Material culture is made up of all of the physical components of a societal culture: cities, neighborhoods, schools, churches, tools, and vehicles to name a few.

Nonmaterial culture is comprised of the non-tangible components of culture like beliefs, thoughts, ideas, norms, values, and language. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nonmaterial+Culturehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Formal+Sanctionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Informal+Sanctions+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discontinuity
It is a time characterized by becoming independent and exploring life possibilities. People who don't have children, who live with parents, or who don't have enough income to be self-reliant fall into this developmental phase. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emerging+Adulthood
An example of cross-modal perception is synesthesia, a condition in which the stimulus of one sensory system leads to the involuntary response by another sense. People with synesthesia can 'hear' color or 'feel' noises.

Another example of cross-modal perception is the McGurk Effect, which is an interaction of visual and auditory stimuli. Research shows that infants have the capacity for cross-modal perception. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cross-Modal+Perception
Let's say an experimenter wants to know how important eating healthy food is for New York City residents. The researcher takes their survey to health food stores, vegetable stands, and gyms. The results show that eating healthy is extremely important to the majority of people who live in NYC.

What is wrong with this experimental design? The researcher went to typical places where the patrons would be into healthy eating. For the sample to be representative of NYC residents they would need to go to places like regular grocery stores and businesses not geared towards health. This makes the sample more likely to be representative of the population. Selection biases are common in online surveys. The results need to be closely examined because the people taking the survey (the sample) are people who visited the website. Surveys don't take into account people who never saw the survey. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selection+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ventromedial+Nucleus+%28also+Known+As+Ventromedial+Hypothalamus%29
For example, think about how different a group of American children who grew up in the Great Depression would be from children who grew up in the prosperous 1990s. An example of a cohort effect could be seen in an experiment in which participants use a computer to perform a cognitive task. The results might show that participants in their 20s did vastly better on the cognitive test that participants in their 60s. But a cohort effect is responsible for the significance- the participants in their 20s have been using computers their entire lives and were more comfortable and proficient with the computerized testing format than the participants in their 60s. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cohort+Effect+
An example would be using desirable results from participants many times during one study in order to make the results seem more robust. This is considered a very immoral thing to do in the scientific community and in research. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intentional+Bias
An operational hypothesis is more detailed than a general hypothesis. A general hypothesis for an example experiment would be that students who slept an hour extra the night before a test would perform better than those who slept the normal amount. An operational hypothesis would state that two groups of fifty high school students took an exam with one group having slept eight hours with the other group sleeping nine hours the night before in order to see if extra sleep improved test scores. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operational+Hypothesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spermarche
Too much stress can lead to too much exposure to cortisol. Organisms have a relaxation response after cortisol has been released which returns their body to normal. If a person chronically doesn't have enough time to have the relaxation response before another stressor causes more cortisol to release then adverse health effects can occur. Too much cortisol can cause a decrease in bone and muscle tissue, blood glucose problems, an increase in blood pressure, a weakened immune response, and longer healing times. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cortisolhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Datum
The primary visual cortex is what converts information that we see into the visual mental image that our brain perceives. If the primary visual cortex is damaged but the other areas that perceive visual stimuli are not then blind sight can occur. The sufferer will not be able to consciously 'see' anything because the ability to convert the stimuli into a mental visual image does not exist.

But people with blind sight can still perceive visual stimuli unconsciously because the other areas of the brain are still able to see the visual stimuli. Patients who are fully 'blind' have been able to navigate obstacle courses and show that they can perceive stimuli in lab settings. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blind+Sighthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abulia
Ebbinghaus developed a very clever and elegant empirical way to measure this. He memorized long lists of three letter nonsense 'words' like OBJ or KWT. He memorized these long lists and tested himself on his ability to recall the words. He used his rates of forgetting to form what became known as the forgetting curve. It is an exponential curve which means that the fastest loss of recall occurs during the first few days and tapers off after that. Afterwards forgetting still occurs but it has slowed down in comparison to the first few days.

The speed of the curve depends on factors like how stressful the initial learning conditions were and how rested the individual was while learning. The rapid loss of information during the first few days highlights the importance in refreshing learned material within that time so the information is less likely to be forgotten. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Forgetting+Curvehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moon+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Memory+Distortions+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Imageryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=McGurk+Effect+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=John+Locke+
An example of an observable behavior would be a mouse pushing a lever in order to receive food. The researcher can physically see the mouse pushing the lever which makes it an observable behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Observable+Behaviors
Empirical evidence has not fully verified that this actual phenomenon exists but it is accepted to be a common situation for many people. The changes that result from a midlife crisis can be positive or negative. People may embrace their age and begin to try new things that they have always wanted to do, like traveling. Some of the negative issues that arise usually are with work or with personal relationships.

Behaviors that commonly arise in association with a midlife crisis are dressing or 'acting' young and wanting to be around younger people. Drug and alcohol issues are also typical with midlife crises along with depression. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Midlife+Crisis+
Verbal and communication skills are very important for having high social intelligence.

Being able to effectively communicate with a wide range of people in various settings is an indicator of proficient social intelligence. Behaving appropriately in social settings is also an important quality which includes knowledge of social norms and rules. Being a good listener is another integral component of social intelligence.

Social intelligence is correlated with emotional intelligence in that it is important to be able to read others' emotions and feel empathy for other people. Social intelligence is a developed and learned skill that can be improved by an individual taking action and working on their social skills. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Intelligence+
This fear of death (or terror) is unique to humans and does not purportedly exist in any other species. Humans deal with this distress by investment in culture and belief systems. Self-esteem is also an important component in that it protects individuals from the terror of mortality.

According to TMT, experiencing this terror can affect a person's behaviors, perceptions, and cognitive functions. It can cause increased ingroup/outgroup thinking and alter ethnic and religious perceptions and stereotypes. It can also negatively affect a person's self esteem. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Terror+Management+Theory+%28TMT%29
An organism's life is comprised of various cycles and rhythms. Research on chronobiology include various subjects areas such as menstrual cycles, animal migration patterns, sleep cycles, and reactions to lightness and darkness.

A well-known chronobiological function is the circadian rhythm which in humans regulates our sleep/awake cycles, energy regulation, and when we eat. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chronobiology
An example would be a toddler learning the word ball to describe their toy ball. Underextension occurs when the child uses the word ball in reference to only their specific individual ball and not use it as a term for all balls. Another example would be a child using the word cat for only their family's lone pet cat instead of using it to apply to all cats.

Underextension declines as children develop and refine their vocabulary. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Underextension
Intelligence functioning is essentially general intelligence which is comprised of the ability to learn, retain information, solve problems, and use reasoning and logic skills.

Adaptive behaviors are skills that are learned in daily life and from interactions with the environment and other people. These included basic social skills, learning, and the behaviors that occur in day to day life. Someone with an intellectual disability can have difficulty with these behaviors due to their condition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intellectual+Disability+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Familiar+Size+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Physical+Dependence
The first pathway is system 1 processing which is very fast, automatic, involuntary. It is an unconscious process that we are not in control of. Information processed in this automatic manner lacks specific details and context.

The second pathway is system 2 processing which is slow, deliberate, and voluntary. It is a conscious process in that we are aware that the processing is occurring. Working memory is used in system 2 processing and information is explicit and more detailed than in system 1 processing.

We use both systems of processing to learn and process information. In social psychology dual process is used in judgments about situations and other people which can influence stereotypical thinking and beliefs in the accuracy of information learned from others. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dual+Process+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Coolidge+Effect
This can best be described using an example.

A researcher wants to know which educational method is best for teaching students a new concept. A group of students are split into two different groups. The researchers would look at standardized test scores and grades and try to match each student with another student that has the same test scores and grades. So a student with a test score of 95 who made As would be in Group A while another student with the same scores would be placed in Group B. This process would be done for all of the students in the experiment.

Then the experimenters would use one educational method on Group A and another method on Group B. They could then see how the differing methods influenced the students' learning of the concept. By using matched groups the researchers can see how the different conditions were influential and know that the results were not confounded by the students' individual differences because they had been evenly distributed across the two groups. Individual differences can confound experimental results so by controlling for this researchers can be more confident in the results of the different conditions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Matched+Group+Designhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Senile+Dementia
Steven's Power Law essentially states that as a stimulus increases in magnitude (a room growing increasingly warmer) it will increase the sensation of the stimulus proportionally (you're not cold any more, you're getting a little warm and remove a sweater, you start sweating and growing uncomfortable). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Steven%27s+Power+Law
The first stage is called encoding and it is how we lay down the foundation to remember information. It is the process of perceiving and processing information so that it becomes a memory. We use visual and auditory stimuli in order to encode information. Attention is important in this stage because it is essential for encoding information that will become a memory.

The second stage is storage which is the storing of encoded information over time. Storage is essentially retaining information so that it can be used later. We have both long term and working (or 'short term') memory that we use for storage of memories.

The final stage is retrieval and that is when we access the encoded memory in order to recall the information. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Three+Stage+Memory+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Angular+Gyrus
He proposed that intelligence was comprised of how well a person adapted to their changing environments and used their knowledge to shape the world around them. This was a more cognitive approach to intelligence theory than a behavioristic viewpoint. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence gets its name from the three factors that Sternberg believed constructed a "successful intelligence."

The first factor is componential intelligence which is analytical in nature and is how good a person is at problem solving. The second is experiential intelligence which is creative in scope and focuses on how well a person deals with novel situations using their past knowledge and skills. The third factor is practical intelligence (colloquially described as 'street smarts') and is how well a person can adapt to change in their environment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Triarchic+Theory+Of+Intelligencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spatial+Visualization
Humans receive security and safety from the laws and government of their society but in order to participate they must give up their "state of nature" desires. By being in a society or group humans have behavioral constraints placed on them such as social norms, rights, and responsibilities. Humans gain rights to be safe and free and in return must respect the rights and freedoms of others. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Contract+Theory
In order to survive they would communicate with each other using their own language. After being on the island a few weeks before their rescue they would most likely develop a pidgin form of communication using words and elements from both English and Russian. Pidgins can evolve and develop into its own language that a group of people use as their native tongue. Once a pidgin is used as a native language it becomes known as a creole. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pidginhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Creolehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deontological+Ethics
Our capacity for language is the same all over the world in wildly different cultures and environments. Children quickly learn language and learn in developmental stages that occur at the same age no matter what differing environments they grow up in. Cognitive psychologists use the LAD theory as evidence to support the concept that language is both a learned and innate capability. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Language+Acquisition+Device+%28LAD%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Participant+Variables+%28Subject+Variables%29
For example, being altruistic would be a surface trait while source traits that comprise this would be being unselfishness, not greedy, sharing, and being thoughtful. A surface trait is comprised of the source traits that can be observed in an individual and are easily observable and common clusters of behavior. Cattell considered source traits to be more influential than surface traits in studying personality. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Surface+Traits+
The trait approach is focused on individual differences and the interaction and combination of personality traits are what makes individual personalities unique. Many different theories use this approach such as the Big Five personality factor theory and the work of Gordon Allport and Raymond Cattell. A critique of the trait approach for personality is that traits can sometimes be bad predictors of behavior. Just because a person scores high on a particular trait doesn't mean they will act that way in a real world setting. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trait+Approach
There are two different types of shallow processing: structural and phonemic.

Structural processing is encoding only the physical and visual information about something.

Phonemic processing is the encoding of only the auditory information. Shallow processing usually only results in the short term retention of the information. According to this theory the best way to recall information easily is by using semantic processing which is encoding the meaning of information and relating it to similar ideas and concepts. More analysis of information and its meaning leads to better recall than shallow processing. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shallow+Processing
To be diagnosed with residual schizophrenia the patient must have had no 'positive' symptoms (or have them in a very subdued and decreased manner) for at least one year. The patient must still be presenting the 'negative' symptoms typical of schizophrenia. There must be an absence for any other medical explanations for their symptoms like dementia or major depression. Residual schizophrenia can be a transitional period from full-blown schizophrenia to remission or can remain a stable condition for years. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Residual+Schizophrenia+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interpersonal+Attractionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Investigator+Effects
TMS can be used to help with major depression, sclerosis diseases, migraines, neuropathic pain, and schizophrenia. It can also be used to determine the extent of brain damage after a stroke. There are very rare side effects that can occur from TMS such as fainting and seizures. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transmagnetic+Cranial+Stimulation+%28TMS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Production+Deficiencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stress+Inoculation
Thorndike was best known for his use of puzzle boxes in his experiments with cats. He would put a cat in a puzzle box and a piece of fish outside. The cat needed to use a lever to open the box to get to the fish. He noticed that once the cats discovered that the lever worked in their mission to get to the fish they would continue using the lever and increase in their speed of finding and using it.

This is what lead Thorndike to develop his Law of Effect theory. It essentially states that behaviors that elicit favorable results (like a cat getting fish) are more likely to be repeated in the future because the consequence was pleasant. In conjunction, behaviors that elicit unpleasant or unfavorable results are more likely to stop and not be repeated in the future. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thorndike%27s+Law+Of+Effect+
The Broca's and Wernicke's areas of the brain are responsible for gesturing and it is suggested that physical nonverbal communication was a precursor to spoken language in humans.

Mismatches between communicative physical gestures and speech are common in children when they are explaining a concept like how to solve a math problem. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gesture-Speech+Mismatches
The big five are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. You can remember these easier by using the word OCEAN, which uses the first letter of each one.

These traits exist on a spectrum. So when personality measures are given to measure the big five traits people are scored on a range.

For example, a person would score on a spectrum that ranges from extroversion to introversion. Openness traits are having imagination, a high range of interests, and openness to new experiences. High conscientiousness means high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and being organized. People scoring high in extroversion are high in excitability, sociability, and are often talkative. Agreeableness means beings trusting, unselfish, and kind. High neuroticism scores often are predictors of behavior that is anxious, moody, sad, and emotionally unstable. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Big+Five+Personality
Research suggests this occurs because when a person feels their freedom of choice is being infringed upon so they sometimes react by going to the opposite stance. An example can be seen in public messages. If a message is too strong or forceful then it is not as effective. For example, if an anti-litter sign is too forceful and says "You must dispose of trash" people are more likely to litter than if they saw a more discreet message that says "Please dispose of trash." ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Boomerang+Effect
This is a major issue with people with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) who feel the needs to act on the impulse of the compulsion often with obsessive tendencies. Common compulsions are over washing of hands, repeating behaviors (like sitting down or touching an item) a particular amount of times, or checking things repeatedly (like door locks or that the oven is off) or hoarding of items to an excess. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Compulsionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Involutional+Melancholiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subliminal+Stimulation
These differences affect how we interact with our environment. Our personalities are essentially the way we interact with the world. The fundamental postulate is that we act in a way with how we expect the situation to be based on past events. How we interpret and interact with the world predicts how we behave in future scenarios and influences how we behave.

When you go to the grocery store you get your items, wait in line, pay, and leave the store. You do this based on previous encounters and interactions at the grocery store in the past. If an individual perceives people as being nice and trustworthy based on their interactions and perceptions with people then they are more likely to seek social settings and be trusting. If an individual perceives people to be mean and dishonest they are more likely to be antisocial and distrusting of others. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fundamental+Postulate
A study by Geier, Rozin, and Doros showed that participants would eat more candy when served with a large spoon than when they were served with a small spoon even though in both instances they had no limits to how many spoonfuls they could have. Humans tend to see things as a single unit and don't take into consideration to size of the unit. A 12 ounce soda is seen as one unit while a 24 ounce soda is seen as one unit even though it is twice as large as the 12 ounce soda. This research shows that portion sizes should be kept small in order to encourage healthful eating. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unit+Bias
Therapeutically it has been used to treat post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety disorders. There are health risks associated with MDMA when used recreationally because street drugs contain very little, if any, actual MDMA. A recent analysis of confiscated MDMA showed that only 13% had any MDMA at all. If it was present it was a very small amount. Dangerous unknown fillers are used instead that can pose serious health risks. It is also dangerous to use it in conjunction with other drugs or alcohol.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ecstasyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Common+Fatehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pyromaniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Crick-Mitchison+Theory+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Isomorphism
Flexibility is the ability to adapt to a changing situation, "reconfigure" mental resources, change perspective, and ultimately balance needs, wants, and life demands. Let's say a person is at a work party and someone they despise shows up even though they were not supposed to. A person with high flexibility would adapt to the situation, take their anger and other negative emotions and reconfigure them, realizing that their emotions were not important enough to cause a scene and ruin the party. So you balance your needs and wants and discreetly leave the party at a good time.

Flexibility is essentially how a person interacts with their environment. People with low flexibility may have anxiety, depression, difficulty in work and learning situations, and substance abuse issues. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flexibility
For example, a two dimensional image of the moon can appear to have three dimensional properties by the light and shadows on the moon's craters. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Light+And+Shadows
A person has a house where their bedroom connects to the living room. When they are in their bedroom they are in the set "bedroom" and when they are in the living room they are in the set "living room." But what if they are in the doorway? Classical theory insists that to belong to a set the person would need to be entirely in the bedroom or entirely in the living room.

Fuzzy logic allows for the person to be included in a set in a vague way or by varying degrees. So the person could be mostly in the bedroom and be included in the "bedroom" set. Fuzzy set logic is used in psychology for modeling concepts. Scientists have used it in a combination of natural and social sciences to make models about how humans interact with the environment. In cognitive psychology fuzzy logic is used in the formation of cognitive maps, which are mental representations of our surroundings that help an individual perceive, store, and recall information about our environment.

We use fuzzy logic to form a cognitive map in which relations between different sets of a mental landscape interact with each other and used in relation to one another. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fuzzy+Setshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Utilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=+Creative+Thinking
A child inherits only half of their DNA information from each parent and in this combination generally display the dominant genes they received. If they inherited only recessive genes for some trait, that is the trait that is displayed. This is why siblings can look very different from one another and why a person with two brown-eyed parents can be born with blue eyes (brown eye gene is dominant, blue eye gene is recessive) if they inherited a recessive blue eye gene from each parent.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dominant+Gene
However, too much or too little social inhibition can be a detrimental characteristic and can be problematic. If a person has too much social inhibition they may be so afraid of other people that they are too quiet and seem aloof or rude. If a person has too little social inhibition they may seem obnoxious and over the top to others by acting inappropriately. Social inhibition issues can be associated with some mental health problems.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Inhibitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extrasensory+Perception
Adolescents typically think others are more aware and attentive of their behavior and appearance than people actually are. A common way of thinking for an adolescent that trips over the sidewalk at school is that everyone saw them and noticed and are going to think negatively about them for being clumsy. The entire world revolves around them in some manner.

Two components of adolescent egocentrism identified by Elkind are the imaginary audience and the personal fable.

The imaginary audience is essentially a mentally constructed anticipation of an event or situation in a future social setting. A person will imagine how others will react to them and how they will behave in this future setting which forms the imaginary audience. Unfortunately situations rarely work out the way a person imagines because adolescents imagine themselves as the absolute center of attention for the audience and social settings that are rarely this way.

The personal fable is comprised of adolescent beliefs that their feelings are unique and uncommon. They are profound and special and no one can feel the same way that they do. The personal fable often works with the imaginary audience to strengthen an adolescent's egocentrism. Typically these traits fade away as development towards adulthood occurs. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adolescent+Egocentrism
A test is given to a group of individuals and their results are used to create a normal distribution. This distribution of scores is used as a normative group in which to compare and score people who take the test.

An example of a normal distribution is a standard IQ score in which 100 is the average score. The initial test taking sample should be a standardization sample. This means that the sample must represent the population that will be taking the test. The standardization sample must be large and representative.

To be representative it must be comprised of individuals similar to those who will be taking the test for real. If the measure is an intelligence test for children then the sample should be comprised of children. By being representative the distribution will be more accurate. Once a norm group has been tested future test takers' scores can be compared to the normative data. Percentile rank can be determined using this information. If a student scores in the 95th percentile that means that their score was higher than 95% of scores in the norm group.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Within+Group+Norms
The working backward heuristic is a method of problem solving in which an individual imagines they have already solved the problem they are trying to solve. By imagining the problem is solved they can then work backwards in their mind and eventually visualize a solution to the problem. By trying to find the multiple connections from a problem to a solution one can use the connections to discover a suitable solution. The working backward heuristic is commonly used in mathematics and logic problems. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Working+Backward+Heuristichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transience
When looking at an object in your hand you can discern detailed information about the object and it appears clear. When the same object is moved to a distance it appears fuzzy and blurry. You are unable to discern the fine details about the object and the colors may appear different. This is aerial perspective and it is a way for our vision systems to convey how distant and object is. Think about this the next time you are on an airplane. The landscape below you is less detailed than if you were a few feet above it ground and trees. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aerial+Perspective
Second order conditioning would occur when the tone is paired with a light and no food is presented. Because the tone causes salivation eventually the dog with salivate at the presentation of the light only. This conditioned response (the salivation) would be weaker than first order conditioning.

Third order conditioning is just taking this another step and pairing the light with a buzzer. Eventually the buzzer will elicit a conditioned response of salivation from the dog. This salivation will be very weak in comparison to first order conditioning because it is so removed from the unconditioned stimulus (food). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Third+Order+Conditioning
For example, the 25th percentile is the number that 25% of the scores are below. Percentile rank is the percent of scores in a distribution which are lower. So someone having a percentile rank of 95% on a test means that 95% of the test takers' scores were lower than theirs. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Percentiles
This differs from the original way of measuring IQ which was using a ratio score which compared a person's "mental" age with their actual age. Deviation IQ scores are intended to be more accurate and account for people who have very high scores on intelligence measures. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deviation+Intelligence+Quotient+%28IQ%29
There are different varieties of apraxia. In some cases the sufferer cannot move their arms or legs. Orofacial apraxia results in not being able to move part of your face. A common example is not being able to wink. Apraxia of speech occurs when an individual does not have the ability to speak because they cannot move their mouth or tongue to form words. Apraxia of speech differs from aphasia because the sufferer can comprehend the speech. They cannot move their mouth and tongue to physically form the words. Apraxia of speech can be acquired in adulthood or can occur in young children as a developmental issue. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apraxia
Another type of measure is behavioral and that is when observation of behaviors in a subject is recorded by researchers. This can occur in a field or a lab setting. A problem with this type of measure is that you have to train coders, which are the researchers that are counting the behavior. If you use multiple coders (which is usually a good idea) you have to train multiple people and do tests to make sure they are observing and counting in a consistent manner (this is called inter-rater reliability).

The third most common type of measure used in psychology is physiological which is collecting measurements of body responses n(like heart rate and breathing rate) during varying conditions. A common example of this would be a polygraph (or 'lie detector') test. In most research designs a combination of multiple measures are used in order to have a wider scope on the subject being studied.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Research+Behavioral+Measures
Context are stimuli that are present in the organism's environment. The stimuli can be manipulated in a research capacity or simply be noise or visual stimuli in the background environment where the learning and conditioning occurred. The renewal effect is strongest when an organism is returned to the original context in which the extinguished behavior was learned.

An example is illustrated by an experiment with rats. A rat is inside a blue colored box and learns that it will receive food when it hears a tone. Eventually the rat will run to its food tray (CR) as soon as it hears the tone (which has become the conditioned stimulus). The rat is moved into a white box and is taught the same exact procedure. Eventually the researcher extinguishes the behavior by not providing food with the tone and the rat stops going to the food tray. If the renewal effect occurs the rat will start going to the tray when it hears the tone without the presentation of food. It is more likely for the CR to come back in the blue box which is the original context the rat learned the behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Renewal+Effect
Only the autonomous attachment style can be described as a secure attachment and is characterized by adults who describe their childhood in a balanced manner highlighting both positive and negative memories of their parents. They describe their past in a consistent manner and typically their early attachments are influential in their development.

The other three attachment styles are characterized by behaviors that can be described as insecure. Adults with dismissing attachment styles often claim to not remember relevant interactions with their parents and are often inconsistent with their descriptions of their parents (such as describing their mother as caring and then later describing her as not paying enough attention to them).

Another style is preoccupied attachment which is characterized by an over attention to their parents and confusion or aggression about past interactions with their parents. These adults appear to be so focused on their childhood memories that it is difficult for them to describe them in detail.

The final attachment style is unresolved or disorganized with adults who appear to still be suffering from past abuses or traumatic events. When recalling childhood events they may not be rational with some adults believing a dead parent is still alive or other delusional ideas.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adult+Attachment+Models
A severely stiff neck is the most common symptom and it occurs because the muscles are tightening in order to prevent the spine from moving. Additional symptoms are fever, nausea, vomiting, and severe headache.

Antibiotics can sometimes be used to treat meningitis successfully in bacterial infections. It is essential to begin treatment for meningitis as early as possible because it can cause brain damage, hearing loss, seizures, and accumulation of fluid on the brain. Meningitis can be fatal even with treatment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Meningitishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Change+Blindness
An example could be seen in a study being conducted by a school on the prevalence of academic dishonesty. They ask their students in an anonymous questionnaire how many of them have stolen an exam from a teacher. The results would be very low presuming that most people have never done this in their academic career. The results would suggest that academic dishonesty was very very low in this student population. If they changed the question to be whether a person has looked at another's paper the amount of "Yes" answers would be more prevalent and be more representative of the prevalence of cheating. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Floor+Effect
Social nonconformists don't follow a social norm either deliberately or unintentionally. Social nonconformity can range from general inconsiderate behavior (such as talking on your phone during a movie) to lifestyles that may be judged or ostracized by others (like being a nudist). Norms are generally shared with others in your social group and wider culture. Norms within one group can be considered as social nonconformity by another group. For example, norms and social behaviors that are considered positive within criminal culture (such as violence and criminal activity) would be considered deviant nonconformist behavior from the majority of people. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Nonconformityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trace+Conditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Observation+
An example of the link method could be seen when studying for a biology test. You are trying to memorize the bones of the body and are having difficulty remembering the three smallest bones which are are located in the ear (the anvil, stirrup, and hammer). You could picture a saddled horse (saddles have stirrups) using a hammer and anvil to make horseshoes. Try this method when you need to remember a list of multiple items.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Link+Method
For example, a student receiving a reading score of 7.3 would be at a level corresponding to a seventh grader who is three months into the seventh grade. This type of scoring is best used to see how students have progressed year to year and how they compare to their peers. Just because a student scores at a higher grade level in one area doesn't mean that they belong in that grade. For example, just because a third grader scores at a sixth grade level on reading doesn't mean they are emotionally mature or proficient enough in other subjects to be in sixth grade. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Grade+Equivalent+Norms
In his research, B.F. Skinner distinguished the difference between "emitted" responses and Pavlovian "elicited" responses that are reflexive and involuntary. An emitted response is voluntary and can be consciously stopped by an organism. An example of an emitted response would be a mouse hitting a lever in order to receive a food pellet. The mouse has done this in the past and received a food pellet, which is a positive reinforcement because it is performing an action and receiving food as consequence. The pushing of the lever is an emitted response because it is voluntary and results in a consequence of the mouse's action that affects its environment. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emitted+Responsehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Metalinguistic+Awareness
We also use abstract modeling from verbal, written, and auditory information such as films and books. Information and skills learned from abstract modeling can be generalized into other similar situations. After a person observes their parents interact with people in social settings many of these behaviors and actions are generalized into other similar settings. By observing how people act in a fancy restaurant you can generalize these behaviors to other formal settings, like a fancy dinner party or gala.

Abstract modeling is different from cognitive modeling which is an explanation of the skill or action is presented along with the demonstration of the skill. An example of cognitive modeling would be a gym teacher explaining how to properly kick a soccer ball as they were demonstrating how to do it. Abstract modeling would be observing another person kicking a soccer ball properly on your own and learning how to do it yourself. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abstract+Modelinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Munchausen+Syndrome
The brain has been developed through evolution to 'expect' these early stimulating experiences and uses them to activate particular synapses that are involved in senses like vision and hearing. If everything is normal then the brain will develop in an expected fashion. But if something has happened that inhibits the perception of these experiences then development can be stunted or halted altogether.

An example of this is when vision is obstructed in an infant and they are unable to perceive the expected visual information the brain needs to form the synapses necessary to the proper functioning of the visual system. Although the infant started out with the required synapses to be able to see they were pruned away because the brain failed to perceive the visual stimulation. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experience-Expectant+Plasticityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experience-Dependent+Plasticity
When two or more groups are competing over limited resources (either from real or perceived scarcity) prejudicial feelings and negative stereotypes can develop towards the other group. Conflict and negative attitudes towards other groups can be reduced if both groups have a superordinate goal (a mutually beneficial goal for both groups in which both groups need to participate in order to reach the goal).

The most famous RCT research occurred in the 1950s with the Robber's Cave Experiment in Oklahoma. Two groups of young boys in a summer camp setting who were initially unaware of each other and which allowed friendship and norms to develop within in each group. During the next phase the groups were introduced to one another and competition was fostered between the two. After awhile prejudicial attitudes and negative stereotypes were each being attributed to the other group, including name calling and vandalism.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Realistic+Conflict+Theory+%28RCT%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sound+Localization
External source monitoring focuses on sources that are in an individual's environment. An example of this would be recalling which one of your professors gave an exam yesterday.

Internal source monitoring is focused on internal factors like when an individual is distinguishing between something they said outloud and something they thought to themselves.

Source monitoring errors can occur for many reasons such as brain injury, aging, depression, cognitive biases. They are memory errors in which a specific recalled experience is falsely attributed to be the source of a particular memory. An example of a source monitoring error would be incorrectly recalling a conversation that occurred in a dream as reality.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Source+Monitoring
An example of a source monitoring error would be incorrectly recalling a conversation that occurred in a dream as reality. These errors can be caused by brain injury (specifically frontal lobe damage), amnesia, effects of aging, depression, and high stress. Cognitive biases can also cause source monitoring errors. Research by Nancy Franklin has shown that people will recall "reliable" sources as giving desirable information and "unreliable" sources as giving undesirable statements. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Source+Monitoring+Error
More complex sensory deprivation can be experienced in isolation tanks which cut off most or all of the senses. While short term sensory deprivation can be pleasant and meditative and is sometimes used for therapeutic reasons, prolonged sensory deprivation can lead to cognitive, behavioral, or perceptual alterations including hallucinations, depression, or anxiety. A clinical behavioral usage of sensory deprivation can be used with children with Down Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Both of these conditions cause children to experience sensory stimuli in different and unpleasant ways. They can either be too responsive to sensual stimuli (causing the child to be overwhelmed) or not responsive enough. By using sensory deprivation the caregiver can reduce the overwhelming stimuli and slowly reintroduce it back to the child in order for them to grow accustomed and not be hyper-stimulated by their senses being overloaded. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Deprivationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hue+Intensity
This theory, developed by Jerome Bruner in the late 1950's, is based on the idea that when students receive instruction and support during a new concept they are more likely to successfully grasp and use the concept independently.

Three modes of representation are to be used during the instructor's initial explanation: actions, images, and language.

An example of scaffolding could be seen in a math classroom. When introducing a new type of math problem the teacher would write the problem on the board and solve it themselves, explaining each step in the process aloud. The teacher would also ask the students questions and give positive feedback on all answers whether they are correct or incorrect. The teacher would repeat this process a few times and then give the students problems to work on themselves. The teacher would then 'fade' away and allow the students to work independently and only offer assistance if requested from the student. By scaffolding the teacher is building a support system of initial knowledge before allowing the students to stand alone and work by themselves. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Scaffolding
Also called Miller's Magic Number, the average person can hold 7 (+ or - 2) items in their mind accurately. A phone number is a common 7 item chunk of information that can be held in your mind. If telephone numbers were 15 digits long it would be impossible for the average person to be able to recall it or hold it in their working memory. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Miller%27s+Law
Natural selection occurs because animals can have different traits from one another within the same species. The animals that have traits that are most advantageous for a particular environment are more successful and more likely to reproduce. They pass their beneficial traits on to their offspring who continue to be successful and pass the traits along to their offspring. Gradually the species will evolve so that the beneficial traits occur in all of the organisms. The finches that Darwin saw at Galapagos had different kinds of beaks. The beaks were more advantageous for the food on the particular island they were on and over generations the finches with the 'better' beaks got more food and had more offspring until the birds with the less advantageous beaks faded away in the population.

Darwin worked on his theories for 20 years and collaborated with a man named Alfred Wallace who had independently reached many of the same conclusions. In 1859 Darwin published his major work "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection." This work was considered revolutionary at the time because it defined humans as simply another animal who evolved from less complex organisms. Darwin's theories have been developed over time and are still widely used in many areas of science and beyond. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Charles+Darwinhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phineas+Gage
A common example can be seen in gambling and casinos. People believe that their actions have influence over games of chance whose outcome is entirely random. Studies have shown that people will throw dice harder when they need a high number and softer when they desire a low number. People will wear "lucky" clothes and perform superstitious rituals before they play because they feel they have control over the outcome of the game when in reality the chance of winning is random.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusion+Of+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Summarization
He discovered the Fechner Color Effect which is the observation of different colors when black and white patterns are moving at a high speed. Fechner also introduced the concept of the statistical median which is defined as the middle value in a distribution of numbers that separates the upper half from the lower half in a statistical spread.

He was the first to study synesthesia, a condition in which the stimulation of one sensory system leads to the involuntary response by another sensory system (examples are people who are able to 'hear' color). Fechner also theorized that if the corpus callosum (the fibers that connect the two brain hemispheres) was split then the two brain hemispheres could act independently of one another. This theory was finally proven in the 20th century. Gustav Fechner was a highly accomplished and influential scientist who contributed immensely to the field of psychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gustav+Theodor+Fechnerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hostile+Attributional+Bias+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Homozygoushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Holophrastic+Period+
Many genes have two or more differing forms (such as eye color or hair texture) which are called alleles. When a person inherits two different alleles for a trait they are said to be heterozygous for the trait (with hetero meaning other or different). When a person is heterozygous for a trait whichever allele is dominant will be expressed. So if someone inherited a heterozygous allele for hair color (Br) with 'B' denoting a dominant allele for brown hair and 'r' denoting a recessive allele for red hair, the dominant trait of brown hair would be expressed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heterozygous
All environments, i.e. family, lifestyle, workplace, etc. have differing characteristics and demands. Goodness of fit is an important component in the emotional adjustment of an individual. Children with difficult temperaments, or temperaments that are at variance with their parents', and grow up with parents who are rejecting or inconsistent, have more difficulty with adjustment and development than children with supportive and consistent parents (for instance, a "geeky" kid growing up in a family that values athletic achievement will have problems if the family rejects that child's unique talents and interests.) For children with emotional challenges "goodness of fit" is an important component in how well they will adjust and adapt to different situations in the future. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Goodness+Of+Fit
Gender segregation has been shown to be cross-cultural and is even evident is some non-human primates. The separation of genders in play is typically initiated by children themselves with girls tending to play with girls and boys preferring to play with boys. Gender segregation typically begins to wane by adolescence. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+Segregation
An example would be presenting a young child with two toy animals - one a familiar creature (a dog) and one unfamiliar (a platypus). When the child is asked to retrieve the platypus a contrast is provided for the child (dog versus unknown creature) which allows them to infer the other creature must be a platypus. Using fast mapping is very effective in new word acquisition with most children being able to recall the new object a week later. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fast+Mapping
An example that illustrates this test is a child shown a box that is labeled "CANDY." When asked what is in the box the child will respond that it is filled with candy. A researcher will then open the box and it contains pencils. The child is then asked what another child would say when asked the contents of the closed box. A child over the age of three will typically say that the child would guess "candy" because they understand that the other child has a false belief.

With children under the age of three, when asked what another would say claim that they knew what was in the box all along and that another child would also know that pencils were inside the box. Universally, children 3 and under have difficulty understanding that when they are aware an alternative belief is false (like the box containing candy) that other people can accept the alternative belief as true. In the egocentric mind of a very young child because they are aware of something it means that others are aware of it as well. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=False+Belief+Problems
Very young children are poor at emotional self-regulation and express many emotions as a result of this. Crying and being scared by loud noises or sudden movements are evidence that young children are unable to regulate their emotions in the same way that older children and adults do. Initially emotional regulation is highly dependent on the primary caregivers but by the age of 6 months children begin to avert their eyes from situations that are over-simulating or unfamiliar. By the age of 2 children will avert their eyes to pleasing or neutral stimuli instead of more disruptive or distressing stimuli. Emotional self-regulation continually develops with older children developing cognitive strategies for dealing with emotions and stressful scenarios. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Self-Regulation
Young children do not have this ability and are unable to comprehend when an object is a symbolic representation of another object. Studies have shown this in the usage of a room and a small identical model of the room. A researcher hides a toy in the smaller model of the room in front of the child and tells the child the toy is hiding in the same place in the larger room. Children up to 3 years of age are unable to find the object in the real room because they cannot comprehend that the smaller room is a symbolic representation of the larger room and that the toy will be in the same location. Once children reach the age of 3 they are able to find the toy in the larger room. At this age dual representation is present and children are able to mentally represent the room in their mind at the same time and conclude the location of the toy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dual+Representation+
In some instances social norms dictate when emotional displays should be suppressed. In most cultures it is appropriate to cry and show negative emotions at a funeral while at a wedding negative and sad emotions should be masked or suppressed. Display rules are often used as a way to protect the feelings of oneself or other people.

An example would be masking your true feelings about your friend's terrible cooking or being friendly to your opponent after losing an important competition. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Display+Rules
Children eventually develop the ability to mentally represent the behavior in their mind and repeat it. Examples of deferred imitation would be a child mimicking their parents cooking dinner by playing with pots and pans and pretending to cook. Another example would be a child who observes another child at preschool throwing a temper tantrum and repeats the behavior for his parents later. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deferred+Imitation
This is an advantageous evolutionary adaptation as it makes it easier for animals that forage for food to find their way home. Humans have this ability as well although not to the same degree as the previously mentioned animals. Studies have shown that children as young as two when blindfolded show the ability to return to a starting point. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dead+Reckoninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contrast+Sensitivity
This can be seen in human fetuses where the head is the first body part formed. Once the body is formed the hands develop before feet. 'Cephalo' is used to describe things related to the head and brain while the term 'caudal' is used to describe the body. So, cephalocaudal development can mean head-body development in which the head develops first. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cephalocaudal+Development
The closer an object is to your eyes the more evident the disparity becomes. Hold a pencil arms length away from your face. The pencil looks normal and is sharp. Then slowly move the pencil closer to your face. As you get closer the pencil will become more blurry. This happens because of binocular disparity.

The visual cortex in the brain uses a process called stereopsis to correct binocular disparity. The two differing signals are combined by the visual cortex and a perception of depth occurs. Depth perception begins to occur around four months of age by which time the visual cortex has developed. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Binocular+Disparity
The basic processes help infants learn and form memories about their environments and are the building blocks for future development. As children get older basic processes are used more efficiently which in turn increases their ability to learn more efficiently. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basic+Processes
Autostimulation theory proposes that the high activity in the brain during REM sleep helps make up for the lack of external stimulation in fetuses and newborns and contributes to the rapid development of visual systems. Research supports this theory in that babies exposed to higher levels of visual stimulation during the day spend less time in REM sleep. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autostimulation+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditory+Localizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attachment+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affordances
The myelencephalon is the location that contains cells that are responsible for respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, and vomiting. This is also the location of many fibers of passage that are huge bundles of axons which transmit information between the brain and the rest of the body. If brain injury or damage occurs here there are major health consequences due to the number of basic body functions that arise there. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Myelencephalon
The neurite extends outwards from the cell body and is connected to the axon of the neuron.

The axon is the long, thin part of the neuron that transmits information. In a unipolar neuron one end receives information (such as pain or touch) and the information is sent to the central nervous system. Some of the primary sensory neurons located in the ganglia in our brain are unipolar neurons. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unipolar+Neuron
The axon is the long, thin part of the neuron.

The dendrites are the neuron's input sites and resemble branches from a tree.

The axon carries information from the dendrites to the terminal buttons that are the output for the neuron.

Bipolar neurons are specialized sensory neurons that are used to transmit information about sight, smell, and taste. They are also located in the vestibular nerve and assist in sensations of hearing, balance, and motion perception.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bipolar+Neuronhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multipolar+Neuron
It forms due to fat and lipid molecules spontaneously arranging themselves to form a water-resistant layer that prevents ions, proteins and other molecules from diffusing into surrounding liquids. These molecules arrange themselves to form super tight junctions that act as a deflector shield against substances that try and enter the cells.

Embedded proteins within the membrane act as docking sites for other molecules. The proteins are like security guard stands that check out substances and either block them from entering or allow them to enter the cell.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lipid+Bilayer
This ability is called object permanence. This ability is fragile in infants and can be manipulated easily. Infants still under the age of one will commit the A-Not-B error. To test this reaction an object is hidden in the same location (location A) multiple times and the infant will find it each time, but once the infant sees the object hidden in a new location (location B) it will typically continue to look for the object in location A. Normally, the infant will begin to correctly search in location B by the time they reach the age of one. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=A-Not-B+Error
Symptoms include an exaggerated startle response, irritable behavior, seizures, and dementia. Tay-Sachs is a genetic disorder that is passed down in families and is most common in Eastern European Jewish populations. The disease typically becomes noticeable in infants 3-6 months of age and leads to death at an early age.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tay-Sachs+Disease
An inverse antagonist not only prevents an agonist from having a reaction on a receptor but causes the opposite response to occur. A receptor is the part of a nerve that receives and reads chemical signals. It then transmits information to the brain and nervous system using electrical signals. Antagonists attach to the receptors in the brain and block the effect of agonists (which are chemicals that stimulate receptors and cause a response).

Conotoxins (which are found in some marine snails, frogs, and corals) and snake toxins (from the cobra and sea snake) are antagonists that block acetylcholine receptors irreversibly and cause flaccid paralysis. Botulism and tetanus are toxins that are antagonists because they block the release of acetylcholine. Botulism can cause illness and death due to exposure but is used in small doses as Botox, which is used to hide wrinkles in the skin and treat medical conditions like morbid obesity, ulcers, and club foot. Scopolamine is an antagonist that is used as anti-nausea medication while curare blocks acetylcholine and is used in surgery. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antagonist
A receptor is the part of a nerve that receives and reads chemical signals. It then transmits the information to the brain and nervous system using electrical signals. Agonists attach to receptors and stimulate them which causes a response. Agonists can occur naturally in the body as hormones and neurotransmitters (endogenous agonists) or come from exterior sources like drugs and toxins (exogenous agonists). Examples of endogenous agonists are dopamine and serotonin.

Examples of exogenous agonists are poisonous nerve gases (soman and serin), choline (building block of acetylcholine, which is the most common type of neurotransmitter), physostigmine, nicotine (from tobacco), muscarine (found in hallucinogens), Black Widow Spider venom, and some pesticides like sevendust. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agonist
There are three general patterns of thinking that are common positive illusions.

One is an overestimation of good qualities, abilities, achievements, and successes. People tend to mentally emphasize their good qualities and underestimate the prevalence of their bad qualities and traits.

Another type of positive illusion is an overestimation of the amount of control an individual has in a situation. Some people have the tendency to believe they have control over outcomes that they have no influence over whatsoever. An example of this could be seen in gambling situations where people use tricks and superstitious behaviors believing these will influence the games of chance.

Being more optimistic about situations and the future than warranted is also a positive illusion. Most people use positive illusions without being aware of it. Research suggest that they can maintain self-esteem levels and prevent any mental discomfort from occurring by thinking of negative things. Complete absence of positive illusions can be seen in people with clinical depression leading to the claim that they are "sadder but wiser" because they are not using positive illusions to be self-deceptive. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Illusions
People use reflected glory from other people to bolster their image. This occurs when someone feels pride when their alma mater's football team wins a big game or their child wins an award. Evaluation of the self also occurs through comparison of oneself to others. Self-esteem is gained by performing better than someone else. The SEM model also identifies variables that can influence whether or not the effect will be positive or negative to the perception of the self.

Two important and related variables are closeness to the person to whom you are comparing yourself and the relevance of the action itself. If you are comparing yourself to a person very close to you on a factor that is not important to your self concept then it is good for self esteem. For example, if your sibling wins a big award for a sport and you are not competitive in athletics then it will increase your self esteem. If you have close ties to a person who has interest in similar factors then it is more likely your self esteem will suffer if they perform better than you.

For example if your sibling won a sports award and you were a competitive athlete you would use self-evaluation to compare yourself to your sibling and feel a decrease in self-esteem. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Evaluation+Maintenance+Model
This particular bias makes negative information have a larger impact on behavior and perception than positive information. If a person with many positive traits displays one bad trait to another person the bad trait will be recalled more easily than any of the good qualities present.

Studies have looked at this bias in detail and when presented with friendly, neutral, and threatening faces subjects were able to recall the threatening faces more easily and with greater detail than the friendly or neutral ones. There is a possible evolutionary adaptation to the negativity bias. By responding to negative or threatening stimuli quickly humans could avoid possibly dangerous situations. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negativity+Bias
When people think about the past they make attributions that decrease the relevance of negative factors. An example would be the length of time it takes to travel to a particular place. Although it took an hour previously, a person is likely to decrease the importance of factors that increased the amount of time by thinking things like "Well, there was a lot of traffic that day but that won't be a factor this time" or "I was unfamiliar with the drive then, I know my way this time." Mental processes such as these lead to the planning fallacy, which occurs in our daily lives with regularity.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Planning+Fallacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Triangular+Theory+Of+Love
When originally developed it was revolutionary because it did not place emphasis on the therapist but on the patient and their perception of themselves. Rogers believed that to develop the self to the fullest potential you need positive regard from others and positive self regard for yourself.

Positivity was a central focus with the word "no" and negative responses being omitted from therapeutic settings. Empathy for the patient is emphasized along with a non-judgmental attitude from the therapist.

Rogers believed that a person could be helped and heal themselves if they were in an environment where they felt free from physical and psychological threats. Although the person-centered approach is most commonly used in therapeutic settings it has also been adapted for use in general social relationships.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Person-Centered+Theory
Salience is how noticeable or observable something is while a bias is an altered way of thinking or perceiving. People tend to emphasize the most noticeable or salient information when explaining causes of behaviors or situations.

When trying to explain someone's behavior people only have the observable external information from that individual. This leads to these salient factors to be most influential when ascribing a cause to someone's behavior.

An example would be someone who watches the news and sees several news stories of violence in their city. Although their likelihood of being a victim of violence has not changed the memory of the violence is very salient in their mind and makes them feel more vulnerable when they go out. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Saliency+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Philiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Storge
Helping behaviors occur because a person experiences another's emotional state, feels sympathy for them, and wants to eliminate their emotional suffering. This is called empathic concern. This theory goes against some theories of helping behavior in that it doesn't take into account a cost-benefit analysis of the helping scenario. Studies have shown that if a person feels empathy for a person they will help them even if it affects them in a negative way. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empathy-Altruism+Theory
Another way in which attitudes can form is by instrumental methods. This would be when someone is praised for endorsing an 'appropriate' attitude and punished for having an 'inappropriate' attitude. Biases and prejudices are often learned this way.

Attitudes can also be formed by observations of the people and environment. Observational attitude formation can be direct (such as observing parents' or peers' behavior) or indirect (observations of media). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attitude+Formation
When confronted with a situation in which aid is needed a person is more likely to help if the victim is similar to themselves. The empathy joy hypothesis attempts to explain another reason why someone will help another person in need.

Similarity alone is not enough to induce someone to help a person. A helping response is more likely to occur when the helper will receive positive feedback and reap the rewards of their help. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empathy+Joy+Hypothesis
There are four types of rewards and costs discussed in interdependence theory: emotional, instrumental, opportunity, and social.

Emotional costs/rewards are the positive or negative feelings that occur because of a relationship.

Instrumental costs are the extra work someone has to do because of a relationship (like picking up dirty laundry) and instrumental rewards are the work that is lessened by the relationship (a partner helping with household chores).

Opportunity costs are when someone has to give up something in a relationship (give up a dream job to relocate) while opportunity rewards are when something is gained because of the relationship (relocating to nicer city to live in a dream house).

Social costs and rewards are determined by the social status and proficiency of the partner.

All of these costs and rewards can determine whether or not a relationship is successful. If the benefits of the relationship outweigh the costs then the relationship typically will continue. If the costs are higher than the benefits and other alternatives are available then the relationship will most likely dissolve. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interdependence+Theory
In extreme cases the eyelid cannot move at all and eyedrops are used to moisten the eye. The cause of Bell's Palsy is ultimately unknown but believed to be caused by a virus that damages the facial nerves. Typically treatment is a combination of antiviral medicines and steroids. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bell%27s+Palsy
This effect was discovered by John Garcia while he was studying effects of radiation on mice. He noticed that rats would avoid a new food when it was initially presented around the time of radiation exposure, which causes nausea and a general feeling of sickness. The Garcia effect occurs in patients undergoing treatment for cancer who are exposed to radiation as treatment. It can also happen in humans when a bad reaction occurs as a result of ingesting a particular food or drink, either from food poisoning or overindulgence. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Garcia+Effect
Because of evolution we can look at relationships between related species and compare and contrast them based on shared traits. Comparative psychologists also use modern animals behavior to draw conclusions about ancient and extinct species. Organisms with simple neural systems can be studied and information can be presumed to cross over to organisms with similar neural networks.

This way scientists can manipulate conditions and study behaviors in organisms to determine information about creatures that are more difficult to study in a lab. Mice, rats, birds, and insects are all common animals used in comparative psychology research. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Comparative+Psychology
If you become ill from eating something you will have an aversion to the taste and smell of that particular food in the future. Phobias also are easily formed associations through classical conditioning. Learning to fear dangerous stimuli develops easily and quickly as an evolutionary adaptation to avoid danger. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biological+Preparedness
The most prominent symptoms are inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. To be diagnosed with adult ADHD the patient must have had ADHD symptoms as a child, currently be exhibiting the symptoms as an adult, and those symptoms must be disruptive to their life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adult+Attention+Deficit+Hyperactivity+Disorder+%28ADHD%29
Jung believed that organisms possess a collective unconscious that provides a framework and pattern for how we organize and interpret information. Jung called these patterns archetypes and that by being present in the collective unconscious that were presented as instincts in humans.Some archetypal figures common in all cultures are the devil, god/gods, the hero, and the trickster. Emphasis was placed on the myths and folklore of different cultures.

He theorized that everyone seeks a balance between the consciousness and unconsciousness and great importance was placed on dream interpretation. Jung developed theories on introvertism, extrovertism, and synchronicity. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jungian+Psychology+%28or+Analytical+Psychology%29+
It occurs when there is a decrease in the strength of a Synaptic Transmission. A synapse is the whole junction between neurons and are where communication information is transmitted from neuron to neuron. Learning encourages synapses to grow, expand, and link up to one another in a process known as synaptic plasticity. If stimulated synapses can grow in humans until death. But if a synaptic area decreases in strength it may eventually progress into LTD.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Long-Term+Depression+%28LTD%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Propinquityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tokensimhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self+Deceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Duty+To+Warn
Catatonic states can be caused by a mental disorder, a medical condition, or unspecified reasons. Catatonic patients are in a stupor and are not affected by their environment in any way. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catatoniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Howard+Gardnerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemispatial+Neglecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autocratic+Leadership+%2F+Authoritarian+Leadership
Experimenter bias can occur at any phase of the research process from the initial background research to the final write-up of results. It is very important to consider experimenter bias as a possible issue in any research setting. Steps can be taken to reduce the likelihood of its occurrence such as conducting blind studies and finding non-biased data collectors.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimenter+Biasethnocentrism) occurs when perceptions of others are influenced by the culture of one's own ethnic group. It is looking at outgroups and judging them based on the norms and standards of one particular culture. A bias is a form of mental deception that alters our perceptions of the environment and other people. Ethnocentric bias influences how people perceive other cultures and individuals within that culture. One's perception of the world is greatly influenced by their particular ethnic or cultural group and an ethnocentric bias can occur when this influence alters perceptions of another group. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethnocentric+Biasstructuralism and coined the word empathy (which is the ability to put oneself in another's shoes). Structuralism proposed that by defining, categorizing, and organizing aspects of the mind then mental processes could be understood. There was no interest in the unconscious or the subconscious mental processes - only the conscious mind was considered to be a viable subject of study.

Importance on introspection was also a focus within structuralism. Research participants were trained in identifying mental processes and presented with stimuli. They then used introspection to describe the sequence of mental processes. Titchener theorized there were three facets that comprised conscious experiences: images, sensations, and feelings. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Edward+Titchener
He was the first to write of the concept of emotions and his famous quotation "I think therefore I am" elucidated his focus on the importance of cognition on the human experience. In psychology Descartes is most known for his concept of dualism. Descartes' theory of dualism suggests that there are two realms to existence. The first is the physical realm which is the environment and the things around us. This is the "realm of matter and energy". This realm can be researched and is scientific because it operates in a prescribed "mechanical" way. The other realm is mental and is "transcendent" to the physical environment and cannot be measured.

Dualism allowed for the separation of sciences and the non-physical realm, which was important long ago because it allowed scientists to conduct their research without fear of being considered heretics by religious groups. Dualism creates a problem for psychologists and the study of the mind: psychologists can ignore the mind entirely and view behavior as purely mechanical or include the mind in study but it not be considered "scientific".

As for mathematics, Descartes devised “deductive reasoning” which may be applied in various sciences. He is also known for the “method of normals”, a procedure in calculus for identifying normal and tangent lines to curves; and “Cartesian geometry”, the use of a coordinate system in studying geometry.

As a scientist, some of his contributions include “Balloonist theory”, a neuroscience concept which asserts that muscle contraction may be caused by air or fluid inflation; and “conservation of momentum,” a Newtonian mechanics concept which explains that the momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity.

As for his early life, his mother died when he was a year old so he was left in the care of his maternal grandmother and then later on by his great uncle. Descartes enjoyed a modest rank of nobility as his father, Joachim Descartes, was a member of the “Parlement of Brittany”. Following his father’s wishes, he graduated with a degree and license in canon and civil law. However, his ambition was actually to become a professional military officer so he studied military engineering in which he was able to work on mathematics and physics concepts such as conic section, free fall, and fluid statistics.

Descartes had a daughter, Francine, as a fruit of his relationship with a servant girl, Helena Jans van der Strom, in Amsterdam. However, she died at the young age of 5 due to scarlet fever. Unlike his contemporary moralists, Descartes acknowledged the importance of emotions and openly wept upon his daughter’s death.

Descartes’ works had become famous in Europe by 1649 and Sweden’s Queen Christina invited him to organize a scientific academy and to tutor her about love. Their classes were supposedly scheduled at five in the morning and it was speculated that the cold weather led to Descartes’ contraction of pneumonia. He passed away on February 11, 1650. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rene+Descartesscientific method is a main tenet and are used as guidelines for experimental psychologists to design their research studies. Using previous research as a framework for future research is an integral part of building knowledge in any field and is important for the emergence of new theories. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimental+Psychologypons which is part of the brainstem. The locus coeruleus produces noradrenaline (also known as norepinphrine) which is a hormone and neurotransmitter that is important for alertness and concentration. Neurons in the locus coeruleus vary in levels of activity based on arousal and mental processes that are occuring in the organism at that time. The release of noradrenaline is dependant on arousal level with high arousal increasing the amount of noradrenaline that is being released by the locus coeruleus. Logic processes, emotion, learning, and stress are areas in which the locus coeruleus is integral. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Locus+Coeruleus
The Sensorimotor phase lasts from birth to 2 years of age and is when the baby's knowledge is limited to perceptions from their basic senses and motor activities.

The next phase is the Preoperational phase which lasts from age 2 to age 6. This phase is characterized by the learning of language, an absence of logical thought, and an inability to look at things from another person's perspective.

The Concrete Operational phase starts around age 7 and lasts until age 11. This is when children begin to use logic in their thinking but they still have difficulty with abstract ideas.

The final phase is the Formal Operational phase which begins at age 12 and lasts until adulthood. This is when children develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. This is usually when students begin to take algebra and other types of concepts that use abstract ideas. Piaget's theories are still used in developmental psychology research in the present day. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jean+Piagethttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Consistency+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attunementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Joyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jealousyindependent variable (which is the variable being manipulated) is no longer affecting the dependent variable (which is the variable being measured). It essentially describes when the dependent variable has leveled out and is no longer responding to the independent variable. This can be seen with pain relieving medication. You can increase the dosage to increase the pain relief up to a certain point but then it will no longer increase in effectiveness because the maximum level at which it works has been reached.

In statistics a ceiling effect can be seen when a variable is no longer measured or estimated at a certain point. In a census there are categories for things such as age and income that have a selective number of choices. For the top ranges (examples would be income of $100,000 or higher, 65 years of age or older) there is an open ended component to the selection that prevents measurement past the cutoff point. There is not difference between someone that makes $100,000 and $1 million dollars as there is no difference between a 65 and an 80 year old. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ceiling+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sleeper+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ablationemotional intelligence. Methods for improving SEL emphasize learning personal and social skills and setting personal goals. Positive aspects of SEL include being able to work well with others, identifying problems, being able to feel sympathy and empathy for others, help-seeking and help-giving behaviors and general ethical behavior. Benefits of SEL training can be seen in both educational and home settings. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Emotional+Learning+%28SEL%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethical+Guidelinescentral nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) to muscles and organs throughout the body. These neurons carry electrical impulses that tell organs and muscles what to do. To move your arm efferent neurons would carry the electrical impulse from your brain, throughout the spinal cord and to your arm where muscles receive the information to move. The opposite of efferent neurons are afferent neurons which carry impulses from receptors in muscles, organs, and glands to the central nervous system. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Efferent+Neuronshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Enculturationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=EmpowermentAttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Boderline Personality Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorders and victims of childhood trauma. Symptoms of emotional dysregulation include: seeming to be "out of control" and can't calm down, too intense emotions, extreme negative emotions, difficulty recognizing emotional cues from others and their own emotional state, and impulsivity. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Dysregulationdefense mechanisms. An EFT can illuminate differing types of cognitive style in individuals. The EFT is based on the field dependence-independence model in which field independence is the ability to find shapes within the larger more complex image (which is the 'field'). People with autism spectrum disorders typically do very well on EFTs. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Embedded+Figures+Test+%28EFT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+Mutismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Edwards+Personal+Preference+Schedule+%28EPPS%29
Differences in learning between individuals is an important component of educational psychology research with gifted and delayed learning being commonly studied. The process of teaching is a common research topic with the negative and positive consequences of differing learning techniques being a central component of many studies. Many curriculums are based on educational psychology research. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Educational+Psychologyembryo begins to grow. The ectoderm forms on the exterior of the mesoderm (the middle germ layer) and the endoderm (which is the most interior germ layer). The ectoderm eventually goes to form our skin, nerves, spine, and brain. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=EctodermTourette Syndrome, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, aphasia, and dementia. It can also be seen in some children with language acquisition and vision problems. An example of echolalia would be asking a person "Do you want to go outside?". An echolalic response to this questions would be "Do you want to go outside? Yes, I want to go outside."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Echolalia
An example would be a school psychologist who was trying to identify learning delays in students so they could receive a specialized curriculum. She first uses grades and teacher interviews to identify any students who may be having trouble learning material. She then uses a test which is supposed to identify students with learning delays. The test would be incrementally valid if it identified students who had learning delays that had gone unnoticed while using the previous grade and interview method. If no new students were identified using the measure then it would not be incrementally valid because it failed to do anything more than the previous method. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Incremental+ValidityAnorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder in which sufferers limit their food intake to dangerously low levels because they think they are overweight (even when they are severely underweight).

Bulimia Nervosa is another eating disorder in which people binge on food and then purge (by vomiting or laxatives) to eliminate the food and calories from their system. The other end of the eating disorder spectrum is overeating. People may overeat to an extreme degree in order to alleviate negative emotions. Body image is a central component in eating disorders with a skewed body image being a common symptom. Eating disorders are often comorbid (occurring at the same time) with other psychological issues such as depression and anxiety. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eating+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cabin+FeverCognitive psychology through language research. Chomsky challenged the Behaviorist view that language, like any other behavior, was learned through exposure to language in the environment. Chomsky theorized that all humans share an innate capability for language unlike any other species of animal and that our capacity for language was the same no matter what culture or environment we are exposed to. Evidence for this theory can be seen in a household with a baby and a kitten.

Although both are exposed to human language from the time they are born, only the human child eventually develops the ability to speak. Chomsky coined this innate capacity for speech in humans the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Chomsky's theories were revolutionary at the time and were integral in the Cognitive Revolution of the 1950s-1960s.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Noam+Chomskydepression. He proposed that three types of negative thoughts lead to depression: thoughts about the self, the world/environment, and the future. People suffering from depression will attribute negative and unpleasant events to their personal failings (self) and to the unfair and unforgiving world. The future is perceived to be bleak and devoid of hope with their troubles lasting forever.

The components of the triad feed and strengthen each other with negative viewpoints in one area making the other parts of the triad stronger. Attributions of events come from maladaptive beliefs about the self, the world, and the future. Cognitive therapy focuses on changing these pessimistic ways of thinking in order to alleviate bad symptoms. This could be done by pointing out the positive qualities of the depressed patient, the world, and their future. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Triad
Cognitive styles can influence social interactions and attitudes. Research has shown that it is easier to learn from a person who has a similar cognitive style to you. A common example can be seen in students. Some people are more visual learners and benefit from images, slides, and graphics in order to learn new information. Others benefit more from auditory information, such as listening to their teacher lecture. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Stylehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+SlippageBehaviorism and Psychoanalysis as the main approach in psychological fields. Increasing focus was placed on observable behaviors in conjunction with brain activity and structure.

During the cognitive revolution, more importance was placed on perception and memory such as the size capacity of working memory (which is what we are actively thinking of at the moment). Among the first disputes between behaviorists and cognitive psychologists was over language acquisition. Behaviorists believed that humans were born "blank slates" of language acquisition and that all language capabilities were learned through our environment. Noam Chomsky theorized that we have an innate capacity for language in our brains that we are all born with and that our capacity for language was inherent as well as learned. The term Cognitive Psychology became widespread in 1967 and the invention of brain imaging machines and computers allowed the field to grow rapidly due to increased research capabilities.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+RevolutionCognitive Behavioral Therapy. It's a therapeutic process used to identify and confront negative thought patterns and help people understand that these thoughts are ineffective or disruptive, with the goal to ultimately change negative behaviors. It teaches patients how to think differently by replacing adverse and illogical thoughts ("faulty thinking") with more rational and positive types of thinking.

Cognitive restructuring is commonly used in treatment of depression, anxiety, substance abuse and eating disorders. A therapist will aid the patient in attempting to replace irrational and distorted thoughts with realistic ones.

The steps in cognitive restructuring are: 1) identifying irrational thoughts, 2) challenging/disputing them, and 3) replacing them with more realistic, rational, and positive thoughts. An example would be a patient who was having repeated panic attacks because of their academic classes. The therapist would first help them identify the disruptive thoughts that are contributing to the panic attacks ("I am going to fail. I am stupid. The professor hates me. I am way out of my league"). Then the patient would need to dispute these negative thoughts with more positive statements ("I got here because of my good grades. I have passed classes in the past. Everyone else is struggling too right now"). Eventually the patient would replace the negative thoughts with realistic thoughts ("I need to study more. We need to form a study group. This is a rough patch that will be over soon. I can handle this"). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Restructuring
This first instance of this type of research was in 1848 with a man named Phineas Gage who had an iron rod lodged through the front left part of his brain. The rod was removed and he survived and showed no sensory or motor disruptions. However, he had significant changes to his personality. He became irrational and lost reasoning skills. This lead to the discovery that the frontal lobe was the location of logic, reasoning skills, and many personality aspects. It was the first time that people had connected a part of the brain to specific psychological functions and behaviors. Due to increasing technology in brain imaging and computers scientists can now do cognitive neuropsychological research in normal healthy patients in addition to those who have injuries. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Neuropsychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Model+Of+Abnormality
These cognitive processes are: observing, categorizing, and forming generalizations about our environment. A disruption in these natural cognitive processes can cause behavioral problems in individuals and the key to treating these problems lies in changing the disrupted process. For example, a person with an eating disorder genuinely believes that they are extremely overweight. Some of this is due to a cognitive disruption in which their perception of their own weight is skewed. A therapist will try to change their constant pattern of thinking that they are overweight in order to decrease the unhealthy behaviors that are a result of it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Learning+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Labeling+Theorymemory deficits in children between the ages of 5-16, by identifying individual learning techniques and adaptations. This test gives information about how quickly a child learns new information as well as their short-term memory and long term memory retention and retrieval capabilities. The ability to recall and use verbal cues is another component of this measure. It can be used to diagnose learning deficits and aid in choosing the best treatment option for these deficits. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=California+Verbal+Learning+Testtraits, and thinking styles in individuals who take it. It is commonly used in workplace settings to predict how well someone will interact with others. There are 20 different scales of personality that are measured in this test including sociability, independence, empathy, self-control, tolerance, and dominance.

Some example questions are: "It is hard for me to sit still and relax", "I read at least 10 books a year", and "People often expect too much of me". This assessment has built in control questions that prevent a person from "faking good" and answering dishonestly. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=California+Psychological+Inventory+%28CPI%29Broca's Area which is located in the front left side of the brain. Usually occurring after a stroke Broca's aphasia is characterized by being unable to form complete sentences and difficulty understanding sentences. Patients suffering from this type of aphasia (disruption in speech production, comprehension, and/or understanding) essentially speak in nouns and leave out words that form complete sentences like 'the', 'and', and 'is'.

An example of this would be a patient saying "Bike...blue" instead of "The bike is blue". Sufferers can also have difficulty understanding and following directional words like up, down, after, left, and right. People with Broca's aphasia have difficulty repeating sentences and this is typically how this condition is diagnosed. It was first identified in the 1860s by Paul Broca, a physician who had a patient who could only say the word tan repeatedly (tan, tan, tan, tan). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Broca%27s+Aphasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Transmission
For the patient it can be a way of keeping track of their goals with definitions and clear descriptions of the expectations included to make things clear. Looking at the accomplished goals can make a patient feel good and be more likely to stay on track with their progress; continuous evaluation has been shown to increase chances of success. GAS is commonly used in eldercare settings, chronic pain treatment, and cognitive or behavioral therapy. Typically 3-4 goals are identified and the scores from these are combined into a single GAS score. A patient who performs at the expected level would receive a neutral score of 0. A patient doing better than expected would receive a +1 or +2. A patient doing worse than expected would receive a -1 or -2. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Goal+Attainment+Scaling+%28GAS%29
He concluded that the patients were manifesting a physical response to negative emotions they were experiencing due to the stressor. Patients suffering from illness would commonly have what he called "diseases of adaptation", which were ulcers, high blood pressure, and heart attacks. He coined General Adaptation Syndrome to describe these physical effects that arose from the stress of an illness. When a patients fails to adapt or cope with the stress from the negative situation physical ailments (specifically the diseases of adaptation) would occur. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hans+Selyehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Degradationindependent variable in the experiment and a level is a subdivision of a factor. Factors and levels are different conditions that the experimental subjects are exposed to. A study or experiment is used to see if any of the conditions influence the subject and in what ways they are influential.

The benefit of a factorial design is that it allows the researchers to look at multiple levels at a time and how they influence the subjects in the study. An example would be a researcher who wants to look at how recess length and amount of time being instructed outdoors influenced the grades of third graders. One factor would be recess length with two levels (long recess and short recess). The other factor in this study is outdoor instruction time with two levels (outdoor instruction and indoor only instruction). This would be called a 2x2 factorial design because there are two factors that each have two levels which create four groups (long recess with outside instruction, short recess with outside instruction, long recess with inside only instruction, and short recess with inside only instruction). Four classes of third grader would be each placed in one of these four groups and receive different factors and levels. Statistical tests then can be used to determine the differing effects that these factors and levels have on the students grades.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Factorial+Design
An example of a cognitive bias is attentional bias in which more attention is placed on things to extreme interest to a person. This can be seen in drug addicts who have greatly increased attention to drug related stimuli in comparison to other things, such as reacting more quickly to a photograph of a drug related object than a photograph of an animal. Another cognitive bias is the Fundamental Attribution Error which is when a person uses personal and internal attributes to explain someone else's behavior ("That person got a bad grade because they are lazy") while using external and situational factors to explain their own behaviors and consequences ("I got a bad grade because the professor doesn't like me").

Some research suggests that cognitive biases are mental processing "shortcuts" that allow us to make decisions faster when time is a more important issue than accuracy of judgment. These types of cognitive biases are used more frequently when we have limited mental processing capabilities due to lack of time or lack of knowledge about a subject or situation. This is purported to be evolutionary in nature so that we can identify possible dangerous situations quickly. An example of this would be noticing someone running towards you quickly as you were walking down the street at night. Instinctively you are cautious and wary of this person and quickly head in the opposite direction. If you had taken time to observe and think about the situation you would have realized that this was a person going for a jog but you were alarmed due to a cognitive bias to identify a possible dangerous scenario. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Biasoperant conditioning a conditioned response is the desired response that has been conditioned and elicits reinforcement. An example may be seen with someone on a diet. Although they are watching what they eat and exercising the reinforcement for their behavior (losing weight) occurs at a later time from the initial work.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delayed+Reinforcement
One example is when a woman blames another women who was raped. A person may place responsibility on the victim in order to reduce the worry that the same situation could happen to them. By placing responsibility on the victim it mentally reassures a person that the situation couldn't happen to them (e.g., "They were asking for trouble because they were dressed inappropriately and walking at night. That would never happen to me because I wouldn't do that"). Another type of defensive attribution is optimism bias, which is when a person believes that positive things happen to them more frequently than other people and negative things happen less frequently. An example of this is an obese person who thinks they are different from others and won't have problems with diabetes or heart disease like other people. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defensive+Attributionstress and change, and difficulty with normal life situations like social situations and financial issues.

Patients experiencing decompensation have an inability to maintain normal psychological functions and defenses. Some causes of decompensation are if the current mental treatments are no longer working or a new cognitive issue arising. For example, in a person with schizophrenia decompensation could occur when delusions, hallucinations, and a deterioration of social interactions occur. This could be due to medication no longer being effective in the patient. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decompensation
See also: Forgetting]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decay+Theorycorrelation which is the strength of the relationship and similarity between the two scores. If the two scores are close enough then the test can be said to be accurate and has reliability.

A reliability coefficient essentially measures consistency of scoring. An example could be done in which an individual is given a measure to determine their self esteem levels and then given the same measure again. The two scores would be correlated and the reliability coefficient would be produced. If the scores are very similar to each other then it can be said they are reliable measures that are consistently measuring the same thing, which in this case would be self esteem.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reliability+Coefficienthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Idealismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Introjectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Categorizationanxiety disorders and may be a way to distance oneself from future stressful situations by maintaining emotional distance from others. If detachment is deliberate people may remove themselves from stress inducing situations in order to avoid the emotional impact it has on them. An example of deliberate detachment is someone who avoids a dramatic and troublesome friend who typically elicits a negative reaction. By remaining detached from the emotional demands of the friend the person is avoiding possible negative scenarios where they are stressed.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Detachmentanxiety disorders, is a feeling of detachment from one's surroundings and/or environment. It is typically described as a foggy mental state that feels like a dream or feeling like you are trapped under a dome. Surroundings seem unreal and the environment and people around you do not seem like they come from reality. People suffering from derealization describe feeling "cut off" from the world around them and that their surroundings seem to be lacking in color and depth. In some cases hearing or smell can be disrupted. Derealization is most commonly experienced during panic attacks or periods of high anxiety. It can also occur in some cases when antidepressants are no longer being taken by a patient.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Derealizationschizophrenia the language will be structured like normal conversational speech but the components of the dialogue will be unrelated and make little sense. An example of derailment would be "The salad was green as I left the front porch yesterday. My uncle is a nice person and dogs like to swim in rivers when the sky is very cloudy." ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Derailment
Dependent personalities are typically anxious, insecure, and marked by a fear of separation from the people on whom they are reliant. Fear of making decisions and a fear of being alone are also common facets of this personality type. The fear of being alone can lead a person to use extreme measures to ensure their dependent relationships are maintained and may possibly be harmed in this process.

An example of someone with a dependent personality is an adult who relies on their parents to take care of them and make all of their decisions. They may be financially dependent on their parents, have them choose their clothing and activities, drive them places, and rely on them for social entertainment in the false belief that they cannot do these things themselves. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dependent+Personalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Demographyhallucinations may occur along with sensory and perceptual deficits and sleep disturbances. The most common cause of delirium is physical or mental illness. Individuals who are experiencing delirium may rapidly shift between differing mental states, for example alternating between dazed lethargy to anxious or violent outbursts and back again in a rapid fashion.

Common causes of delirium are drug withdrawal, neurochemical disturbances, and ingestion of poison. Delirium quickly disappears when the underlying cause of it is eliminated. If a drug addict is experiencing withdrawal from a drug once they ingest the drug the delirium will soon dissipate. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deliriumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delinquency
There are varied methods in which dehumanization can be used against an individual or group. It can occur through a verbal discourse that likens a group of people to animals or through physical and/or verbal abuse. Dehumanization can also occur by not acknowledging a person because of particular traits they possess. An example can be seen when a person or group discriminates against a different race solely because they belong to a particular ethnic group. Comparisons to non-human entities and the attribution of negative traits can be used to dehumanize the members of the ethnic group. Dehumanization is a common tactic in war and civil strife- by making the enemy appear non-human it is easier for people to commit violent acts against them or be in support of domination over them. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dehumanizationdepression who feel that trying is irrelevant because the situation will end badly no matter what happens. Defeatism is often seen in situations of war where soldiers will refuse to participate because they feel their actions are futile and nothing will change the inevitable negative outcome. Another example is a depressed person who no longer interacts with others in social settings and doesn't participate in activities they previously enjoyed. The feeling of hopelessness and perceived certainty of negative outcomes makes them feel as if their actions are pointless.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defeatism
Benefits can be both physical and mental with improvements in balancing and flexibility along with decreases in depressive symptoms and improvement in self esteem. Common participants in dance therapy are stroke victims who find the combination of physical and mental activity can help increase movement that may be inhibited by paralysis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dance+Therapyantidepressant drug that is used mainly in the treatment of depression. It's in a class of chemicals know as tricyclic antidepressants, which were developed in the 1950s and named after their three part chemical structure (like a tricycle has three wheels.) Imipramine works by elevating abnormal levels of neurotransmitters in the brain that are causing depressive symptoms. Imipramine can also be used to prevent instances of bed wetting (also called enuresis) by shortening the stage of sleep in which bed wetting occurs. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Imipramine
It is important to note that all children develop differently and reach milestones at varying times and with differing paces. If a child has not reached a milestone by an appropriate age then they may have a developmental delay. If a child appears to have a delay then they need to be examined and tested by a doctor or specialist to ascertain any problems that may be present in the child.

For example, a child who hasn't started speaking by 18 months may have a hearing problem that is prohibiting them from hearing the speech around them making them unable to replicate it. Although not all developmental delays signify an underlying problem it can be an important sign for identifying genetic or environmental issues.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Developmental+DelayB.F. Skinner was a behaviorist who was interested in language acquisition in humans. He proposed that language, like any other skill, was gained by reinforcing responses from the environment. It's a process of building language skills on top of each other as a result from interacting with the environment. Desirable sounds made by infants are reinforced and these build on each other and eventually form the ability to speak languages.

An example of how this works is when a baby is making garbled sounds to its parent. When the baby makes a sound that seems like a word (mama, dada, baba) the parent will respond by repeating the sound and giving the child affection and encouragement for saying the 'word'. This positive reinforcement (hyperlink?) encourages the child to repeat the sound. This occurs with more and more words which eventually will become sentences and phrases. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Language+Behavior
The interquartile range is the scores that range from quartile 1 to quartile 3 and is a measurement of the middle 50% of the scores in a distribution. The middle 50% generally holds the majority of the scores and is a good way to get an estimation of an average score. The interquartile range is calculated by subtracting the first quartile score from the third quartile score. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interquartile+Rangenarcolepsy also have episodes of cataplexy. It is believed to be caused by an autoimmune destruction of the neurotransmitter hypocretin, which regulates arousal and wakefulness. Cataplexy, without associated narcolepsy is rare, but does exist.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=CataplexySchizophrenia, epilepsy or Parkinson's disease. It is also seen as a result of cocaine withdrawal and occasionally as a side-effect of severe emotional shock and trauma.

Catalepsy is characterized by body and/or limb rigidity, limbs staying in same position when moved (also known as waxy flexibility), lack of physical response, loss of muscle control, and a severe slowing down of bodily functions (such as breathing). In the past catalepsy was sometimes misdiagnosed as death and resulted in persons actually being buried alive.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catalepsy
This term makes reference to the mythological character Cassandra, daughter of King Priam of Troy, who was first given the gift of prophecy by the god Apollo but was later cursed so that no one would believe those prophecies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cassandra+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Case+Management
It is theorized that this type of loss effects the brain's pain center and natural warning systems and leads to low self-esteem, lack of self-confidence, difficulty developing and maintaining close relationships, and many other symptoms.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abandonment+Reactionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abalienationextrinsic motivation), while others work because they love the work, the mission of the company or other intrinsic reasons (intrinsic motivation).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Work+Motivation
See also: Antidepressant]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tricyclic+Antidepressantshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thermoceptionsensory neurons.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tactioceptioncentral nervous system (CNS) and transmits information to and from the body and brain. It also contains neural circuits that independently control numerous reflexes and central pattern generators. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spinal+Cordattribution, as used in Social Psychology) of a data source that does not require a unique profile, only a reasonable scientific certainty regarding the evidence's source. This means that if the data or information was obtained from a source that can identified with a reasonable amount of certainty, then it is acceptable for use.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Source+AttributionAsch's conformity study are often quite popular in American Universities.

Asch stated in his theories that “Most social acts have to be understood in their setting, and lose meaning if isolated. No error in thinking about social facts is more serious than the failure to see their place and function.” Simply put, social actions can only be understood in context. In isolation, these actions and activities cannot be properly understood.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Solomon+Aschhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Traphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+MotivationSigmund Freud as libido, is an aspect of an individual's sexuality and varies considerably between individuals and under various circumstances. Sexual motivation can be stimulated by both internal and external cues and relies heavily on imagination and visual stimulation. Research also shows that sexual desire exists on a spectrum that includes and ranges across aversion, disinclination, indifference, interest, need, and passion.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Motivationdepression and other mood disorders through the inhibiting, or slowing, of the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine neurotransmitters by the synapses of the brain. This allows the powerful mood-altering neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine to have a greater and more long-lasting effect on the brain. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Serotonin-Norepinephrine+Reuptake+Inhibitors+%28SNRI%29encode information differently depending on the degree of personal involvement in the sequence of events being encoded. Research has shown that the greater the person's involvement, the greater the level and accuracy of recall. For instance, if an individual is involved in a car accident, the memory will be much more intense than if the accident had only been witnessed.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Reference+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phonemic+Encodinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peer+Review
For instance, in English we have many homophones (words that sound alike but mean different things depending on how they're spelled), such as to, too and two where each has its own meaning. Improper use of these spellings can turn a written sentence into nonsense. i.e "I went two the store too by to oranges." In English it is also important to use punctuation and word order correctly, or it can drastically change the meaning of a sentence. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Orthographic+EncodingGemeinshaft and Gesellshaft" (community and society) that describes an individual's interaction with the world. First put forward as a concept by German philosopher Ferdinand Tonessen this equation describes an individual's two chief realms of interaction outside of themselves and their immediate family.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=GessellshaftGesellshaft (society), into the phrase "gemeinshaft und gesellshaft" which was first coined by German philosopher Ferdinand Tonnies. This phrase refers to the two chief components of the personal worldview. More recently referred to as the social network, these are the two components that make up the bulk of an individual's social contacts outside of self and family]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gemeinshafthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Saturation
In psychology Erik Erikson developed a theory of human development involving differing stages of human development that cover the entire human lifespan (or life cycle). He discerned eight differing stages that humans experience. Each stage has a centralized conflict that is significant at the time and certain traits and behavioral outcomes are associated with different stages. The stages go from infancy (birth to 18 months) during which trust is established, to childhood (2-3 years) when toilet training happens, to the preschool stage (3-5 years), school age (6-11 years), and so on, all the way to maturity, which lasts from age 65 to death, when when people reflect on their life and try to have a sense of fulfillment.

Click here to learn more about Erik Erikson, including all the stages of the life cycle.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Life+Cycle
When conducting research, this can cause many problems and lead to incorrect and biased results. It also has many negative effects in every day life. For example if you don't tell your doctor about habits that may appear negative, such as eating a lot of junk food or smoking, the doctor will not have the right information to treat you properly, and could even lead to false conclusions, unnecessary testing, and improper diagnoses. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Desirability+Bias
The categorization of species is another example of hierarchical classification. At the very top is the kingdom which is the broadest category, followed by phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. For humans, the classification would be Animalia (kingdom), chordata (phylum), class (mammalia), order (primates), family (hominidae), genus (homo) and species (sapien). It goes from a very broad category (all animals) all the way down to our unique species (sapiens). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hierarchical+Classificationegocentric bias). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bias
You can also see the more general definition of Group or Group Counseling.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+%28clinical%29
See also: More clinical definition of Group or Group Counseling.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Groupneurotransmitter, serotonin thereby allowing the serotonin to have a greater and more long-lasting effect on the brain synapses. Serotonin is believed to be an important arbiter of positive mood or "happiness."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+Serotonin+Reuptake+Inhibitors+%28SSRI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary+Traitkinesthetic sense, or sense of locomotion (movement). This sense is derived from the action of the skeletal muscles and the"propriceptors" (movement sensors) that send sensations of movement to the brain. It is responsible for keeping track of the relative position of neighboring parts of the body, as well as measuring the amount of strength needed/being used to engage in physical tasks.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proprioceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Opthalmoceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Olfacoceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=NociceptionParkinson's disease, atypical depression, bulimia, PTSD, social phobia, panic disorder with agoraphobia and several other conditions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Monamine+Oxidase+Inhibitors+%28MAOI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gustaoceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equilibrioceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Choice+Blindnesseardrum then transmits those vibrations to the inner and middle ear where they are transmitted by way of the auditory nerve to the brain as sound.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AudioceptionGestalt Psychology that refers to the human mind's tendency to consider an object in its entirety before it perceives the object as the sum of individual parts. A simple example of this is when a person is trying to buy a car. They first identify that it is a "car." Then they note the color, make and model. After this, if interested, the person will start to note the details; condition of the body, number of cylinders, engine condition, trim, etc.


Image source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Reification.jpg ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reificationconstruct validity that requires a comparison of at least two constructs and that those constructs have a possible linkage. For example, a comparison of human aging with memory loss. Both of these events occur, and appear to have a correlation without being directly related to one another.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nomological+Validityhormone that is primarily secreted by fat cells that regulates body fat amounts through regulation of hunger and energy expenditure throughout the body. Research shows that leptin is secreted when the body's fat stores reaches a certain level (commonly called the set point) to decrease appetite and food-seeking behaviors. This occurs when leptin triggers receptor cells in the hypothalamus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Leptinpsychotic symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations and disordered thinking that are frequently associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. First introduced in the 1950's, and also known as neuroleptics, the ones known as "typical" antipsychotics work by blocking dopamine receptors. The "atypical" antipsychotic drugs that were first introduced in the 1970's also block serotonin receptors.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antipsychoticdepression, anxiety, OCD, and many others. These substances are used to influence brain chemistry and the most common classes of these are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). Each of these classes of drugs work in different ways to eliminate depressive symptoms. Natural ingredients that are sometimes used for depression treatment are tryptophan and Saint John's Wort.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antidepressant
It is important for the raters to have as close to the same observations as possible - this ensures validity in the experiment. If the raters significantly differ in their observations then either measurements or methodology are not correct and need to be refined. In some cases the raters may have been trained in different ways and need to be retrained in how to count observations so they are all doing it the same.

There are a few statistical measurements that are used to test whether or not the difference between the raters is significant. An example using inter-rater reliability would be a job performance assessment by office managers. If the employee being rated received a score of 9 (a score of 10 being perfect) from three managers and a score of 2 from another manager then inter-rater reliability could be used to determine that something is wrong with the method of scoring. There could be many explanations for this lack of consensus (managers didn't understand how the scoring system worked and did it incorrectly, the low-score manager had a grudge against the employee, etc) and inter-rater reliability exposes these possible issues so they can be corrected. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inter-Rater+Reliability
An example would be choosing between two different cars, each with differing pros and cons. One car gets great gas mileage and has lots of fancy stuff (approaching) but is very expensive and expensive to maintain (avoidance). The other car is cheap and cheap to maintain (approaching) but very boring and won't last long term (avoidance). Your mind will weigh these different options and eventually come to a decision based on the information you considered. As humans this is a very common internal debate that we use daily, from choosing what food to eat (healthy food vs. tasty junk food) to where we will live (country vs. city). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multiple+Approach-Avoidance
Central tendency is a term used to refer to an average or the middle range of a distribution. Rater errors occur because when evaluating another person our unique biases and perceptions influence how we rate another person. These errors often go unnoticed so the person continues to make errors without realizing they are being influenced by their personal perceptions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Error+Of+Central+Tendency
An example of a falsifiable statement is that all cars are red. This statement can be proven false easily with any observation of a car that is not red. Anything that cannot be proven false is considered pseudo-science and not valid for scientific inquest. An example of a unfalsifiable statement is that invisible trolls that cannot be detected by humans live inside trees. This statement cannot be proven to be correct or false. Therefore it is not falsifiable and cannot be used in scientific inquiry.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Falsification+Principlehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relative+Frequency
Although most commonly diagnosed in children adults can also be diagnosed as having this disorder with the presumption they have had it since childhood and it wasn't identified. There are differing levels of ADHD which can range from mild to severe with symptoms often decreasing in severity with age. ADHD can be treated using behavioral therapies and/or medication. ADHD differs from Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) in regards to the impulsivity and hyperactivity components of the disorder. People with ADD mainly have issues with distractibility and do not exhibit the other traits of ADHD. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attention+Deficit+Hyperactivity+Disorder+%28ADHD%29
An example of diffusion can be seem when you add food coloring to a glass of water. The first drop of food coloring in the water is highly concentrated because there are a lot of food coloring molecules within that drop. As time passes by the food coloring will diffuse throughout the water making the entire glass colored. The food coloring has gone through diffusion, moving from an area of high concentration (the single dark drop of coloring) to areas of low concentration throughout the water. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diffusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cross-Race+Effect
People with this type of bias will think they are better than average on rates of intelligence, generosity, and skills. The majority of people will rate themselves as being a better than average driver. Not only are positive traits amplified but the perceived likelihood of negative things happening to them is less than it is for other people. A person with an egocentric bias will think they are less likely to die in a car crash or get cancer. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Egocentric+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overextension
See also: Taste ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Taste+Budshomeostasis (balance) can increase or decrease blood sugar levels through insulin secretion to increase or decrease appetite.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lateral+Hypothalamusimprinting in birds (the tendency of birds to identify the first being seen after birth as their "mother") and for his work in ethology (study of ethics) that led to a shared Nobel prize in 1973.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Konrad+Lorenzhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hunger+Motivationmental retardation that is believed to be the result of environmental factors, usually related to some types of psychosocial disadvantages; lack of prenatal care, impoverished circumstances, poor diet, lack of intellectual stimulation and opportunity, etc. rather than an identifiable physiological or neurological reason. This type of retardation, generally noted as an all-around slowness is not usually noted prior to a child starting school.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Familial+Retardationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Facial+Feedback+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exposure+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exemplar+TheoryCentral Executive function that coordinates the activities of three subordinate or "slave" systems. The episodic buffer is the third member of these slave systems and is theorized to integrate the other functions, known as the phonological loop (information heard) and visio-spatial sketchpad (information seen) with a sense of time, so that things occur in a continuing sequence, like a story from a book or movie. This theory is used to explain why memories can be experienced as a coordinated sequence of events rather than as discrete segments.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Episodic+Bufferhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biomedical+Therapy
This is why it is possible for a person to be unaware of their own biases, even when they are pointed out. For instance, this is why a person with emotionally fixed political views may automatically accept whatever their party stance is, rather than carefully considering all sides of the issue before making a personal decision. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attribute+Substitution
This theory is the basis for most business and government goals; setting the goal and doing whatever is necessary to achieve that goal without deep consideration of the propriety or morality of that goal. Unfortunately, in human society there are many individuals who also use this type of thinking to reach personal goals and this type of personal behavior would commonly be described as amoral, or even sociopathic.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rational+Choice+Theory This primarily Russian (and former USSR) theory sought to understand all of human physical and social activities as complex and socially situated phenomena that expands upon and fuses the teachings of earlier Russian researchers Bekhterev and Pavlov, as well as the schools of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. This theory is still popular and in wide use in the former Soviet Union in the fields of psychology, education, professional training, and ergonomics.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Activity+Theory+%28AT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ratio+Scale
For instance, the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales of temperature are calibrated based on the freezing point of water at sea level but 40 degrees on either scale does not mean that it is twice as warm as 20 degrees. Likewise, in most modern calendars years are counted, either forward or backwards, from a culturally significant event, with months that vary in length.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interval+Scalegender (male and female) and ethnicity (Caucasian, African-American, Hispanic, Asian, etc.). For example, in an experiment using using student volunteers several nominal scales could be used to create different books. The students could be categorized by gender, age, or what year in school they are.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nominal+Scalehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cronbach%27s+Alphahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Contexttaste, sight, smell, hearing, and touch. Sensory information is collected from sensory receptors that are located throughout your body (such as photoreceptor cells in your eyes for vision and taste receptor cells on your tongue for taste) and then sent to the brain where it is processed. Some examples of sensory information are the smell of baking bread (smell), the feel of a wool sweater (touch), the taste of an apple (taste), a song (hearing), and a painting (sight). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+InformationBehaviorism is mentally directing attention or physically directing the body towards a stimulus of some kind, such as light or a noise. Orientation can essentially be described as a response to a stimulus. A dog is showing orienting behavior when he hears a noise and perks his ears and turns to look in the direction of a noise. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=OrientationDevelopmental Psychology to describe a child's belief that the world is unchanging. They believe that how things are in the present is how they always have been and how they always will be.

An example would be a child who is surprised to learn that his teacher is the child of someone else - the child can only comprehend them in their role as his teacher. If things do change children perceive it to be sudden and immediate. For example, a child may think that they will wake up and be tall one day - they don't understand that it will be a gradual process. Static thought is called this because when something is static it stays the same and doesn't move. According to the psychologist Piaget children between the ages of 2-6 are in the preoperational stage of childhood. This phase is marked by a lack of logical reasoning and abstract thought patterns. Static thought is a main characteristic of the preoperational phase and hinders children from heavily using logic and reason in their thought patterns. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Static+Thoughtsretina of the eye. The retina contains rods and cones which are photoreceptor cells. These are cells which are specialized and convert light into signals which are sent to the brain. These signals are eventually converted into images by our brain making rods and cones essential for us to see. Eccentricity occurs because there are differing amounts of rods and cones on each part of the retina. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eccentricityintelligence test score averages over time. This has been reported to happen worldwide. Intelligence testing began in the 1930s and the average scores have steadily increased since then. Intelligence tests are standardized at a score of 100 which means that 100 is the average score of all who take it.

When a test is revised they are standardized to a score of 100 again so that it is certain they are measuring correctly in relation to the new group of test takers. When a new group of people take the previous test there is an increase in scores with the new group typically scoring well above 100 (which is the average). There are many possible explanations for the Flynn Effect including better nutrition, less infectious disease, longer and more productive education, and more stimulating environments. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flynn+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eugenicsfrequency distribution, which lists sets of scores and their frequency, which is how many times the score occurs. For example, a set of scores you are looking at is 1,1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4. The frequency of score 1 is 2 because it appears twice in the set. The frequency of score 4 is 3 because it is represented three times in the score set. We also need to explain a cumulative frequency distribution, which is a list of scores, their frequency, and their cumulative frequency. Cumulative frequency is the total of a frequency and all of the frequency scores beneath it. In the previous score set example, the cumulative frequency for the score of 3 would be 6. This is determined by adding to frequencies of scores 1,2, and 3. Their respective frequencies are 2,3, and 1: cumulative frequency would be (2+3+1)=6.

Now, Relative frequency is a proportion of the times a score occurs. It is calculated by dividing the frequency of a score with the total number of scores in the score set. In the example score set the relative frequency of a score of 2 would be 0.33: 3 (frequency of score 2) divided by 9 (total number of scores) = 0.33. The cumulative relative frequency of a score is the total of a relative frequency and the relative frequencies of all of the scores below it. The cumulative relative frequency of a score of 2 would be 0.55: .22 (relative frequency of score 1) + .33 (relative frequency of score 2). The cumulative relative frequency of a score set will always add up to equal 1. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cumulative+Relative+Frequency+Distributionfrequency distribution lists sets of scores and their frequency, which is how many times the score occurs. For example, a set of scores you are looking at is 1,1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4. The frequency of score 1 is 2 because the number 1 appears twice in the set. The frequency of score 4 is 3 because it is represented three times in the score set. A cumulative frequency distribution is a list of scores, their frequency, and their cumulative frequency. Cumulative frequency is the total of a frequency and all of the frequency scores beneath it. In the previous score set example, the cumulative frequency for the score of 3 would be 6. This is determined by adding to frequencies of scores 1, 2, and 3. Their respective frequencies are 2,3 , and 1: (2+3+1)=6. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cumulative+Frequency+Distributionstimulant. A stimulant is a drug that cause temporary improvements in mental and/or physical functioning by increasing alertness and decreasing sleepiness. Caffeine and cocaine are also stimulants. Due to its addictive qualities Methamphetamine is rarely prescribed but in some cases it can help treat ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and obesity. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Methamphetaminedepression, and/or aggression. An example of ostracism is a student deliberately not inviting a particular person to their party although they invited everyone else in their class.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ostracismcentral nervous system. Its most important function is to prevent such things as infections and toxins from entering the brain via the bloodstream. It is formed by blood capillaries (the smallest blood vessels) in the brain that very tightly packed together (and thus, have tighter junctions) than other capillaries in the body which strictly control what can pass through into the brain fluid.

Like the capillaries throughout your body the brain capillaries branch out like a tree delivering nutrients and taking waste away from the cells in your brain. The capillaries are surrounded by tight junctions that close off the vessels from the brain fluid. The junctions are very picky when it comes to what may pass through the barrier into the brain. Water, various gases, and some lipid soluble molecules move through the barrier naturally by a process known as diffusion. Diffusion occurs when something moves from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The barrier also actively moves amino acids and glucose that the brain cells need for nutrition. The blood brain barrier also helps maintain a constant environment for the brain so that it can properly function at all times. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blood+Brain+Barrierrecall where memories are either recalled more easily or with more difficulty than they should be. Memory bias can also alter recalled memories so that they are different from what actually happened.

Some memory bias examples are rosy retrospection (recalling the past as being better than it actually was), egocentric bias (recalling your past in a way that is more self glorifying than it should be), and cross-race effect (the bias for people of one race to have difficulty identifying people from other races). Some memory biases are natural, such as infantile amnesia (inability to retrieve many memories from before the age of 4). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Memory+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Central+Trait
The episodic buffer refers to a faculty that links visual, spatial and verbal information with a sense of chronological ordering. In simpler terms, this might be viewed as a business office with a supervisor (central executive) who is in constant contact with three subordinates who each have a different function. In this scenario the supervisor continually coordinates the activities of the three subordinates to create a cohesive whole.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Central+Executive
This principle is the basis for the existence of newspaper astrology columns, phone psychics, fortune cookie predictions, etc...

The individuals who practice these types of industries and activities are well versed in the means of communicating information that is both positive and non-specific and is designed to speak to people's hopes, dreams and expectations.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Barnum+Effect
Features of this style of parenting include clear standards, rules and limits, expectations of age-appropriate behavior, maturity and independence, supported by punishments that are explained, consistent and fair, yet with latitude made for mistakes and misunderstandings. This style of parenting is currently favored by child development specialists.

See also: Authoritarian Parenting]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Authoritative+Parentinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Primacy+Theory
For example, if a high school student got a speeding ticket (undesirable behavior) their parents might take away their driving privileges. Not wanting to lose driving privileges again the student will drive slowly to avoid getting another ticket.

Another example would be not allowing a child to play video games for a week because their grades at school were bad. The child will try to improve their grades so that their video games are not taken away again.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Omission+Trainingsample (Example: one class of high school seniors SAT scores) and compare it to a larger set of numbers which is called a distribution (the SAT scores for all US high school seniors). One tailed tests look at whether the sample is greater OR less than the distribution but not both. This is where the name comes from: you are only interested in one side (known as a tail) of the distribution.

Using the SAT example, you are trying to determine if your high school class's SAT schools were the same as the US nationwide scores. You are only interested in knowing if your class's scores were higher than the national scores. Therefore you would form a one tailed hypothesis for your statistical test to determine if your scores were higher because you are only looking at one tail of the distribution.

See also: Two Tailed Hypothesis ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=One+Tailed+Hypothesissample and a distribution. In statistics you compare a sample (Example: one class of high school seniors SAT scores) to a larger set of numbers, or a distribution (the SAT scores for all US high school seniors). A two tailed test looks at whether the sample is is greater than and/or less than the distribution. Two tailed means that you are looking at both sides (known as tails) of a distribution and seeing their relationship to the sample.

Using the SAT example, you are trying to determine if your high school class's SAT schools were the same as the US nationwide scores. You are interested in knowing if your class's scores were higher or lower than the national scores. Using a two tailed hypothesis for your statistical test you can determine if your scores were higher or lower. You would use a two tailed test because you are interested in the relationship between both sides (tails) of the distribution.

See also: One Tailed Hypothesis]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Two+Tailed+Hypothesisgustation, it is the sensory experience of a substance that is put in our mouths. Our tongues are coated with taste buds which contain taste receptors cells. These cells react chemically with substances in our mouths to produce the sensation known as taste. Food molecules along with saliva interact with the taste receptor cells which tell us information about the substance. Humans have five recognized taste categories: sweet, bitter, salty, sour, and umani (savory). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tastehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Benzodiazepineshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gustationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Libriumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Divergent+Validity
An example would be a very hard test given to a small class of 5 students. The test scores were 50,50,50,50, and 100. The average test score would be 60 although almost everyone scored less than that. The score of 100 is an outlier. Either the student is very smart and did well on the test (natural variability) or they cheated (a problem with the test).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Outlierhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cocktail+Party+Effect
Examples are remembering to take medicine at a certain time, remembering to set your alarm for an important meeting, or stopping to get milk after work because you noticed you were out that morning. Another example is when a pilot encounters an emergency situation and has to recall the emergency procedures they learned in training. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prospective+Memoryretina of the eye captures light and images from the front of the eye and transmits them to the brain. The retina is located at the back of the eye and light is reflected to it. Myopia occurs when the distance to the retina is greater than the light can travel.This causes images to be captured in front of the retina instead of directly on the retina causing blurry vision. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Myopia
Depolarization is a change in the difference between the electric charge on the inside and the outside of the cell membrane and is when the cell becomes positively charged (or less negative). The electrical charge changes because of molecules entering or leaving the cell - molecules can have a positive or a negative charge. Hyperpolarization is the opposite of depolarization and is when the cell is becoming more negatively charged. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DepolarizationA priori and a posteriori knowledge are terms used in epistemological study. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epistemologypsychotherapy in which the therapist helps their patient understand how their feelings, beliefs, actions, and events from the past are influencing their current mindset. Importance is placed on the relationship between the therapist and the patient with the therapist identifying behavioral patterns from the patient's past that could be affecting their behavior and relationships at the present time.

The therapist helps the patient gain insight into their past that can be used to address issues that are currently happening. For example, a therapist has a patient with low self esteem issues. Through talking and analyzing the patient's past the therapist would help the patient identify the causes for their low self esteem (being bullied as a child, non-supportive parents, weight issues) and how these past scenarios are affecting their behavior and feelings in the present. The therapist would then direct the patient to methods of avoiding these negative thought patterns and directing them towards more positive ways of thinking. By gaining insight about their past the patient can alleviate problems in the present. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Insight+Therapy
See also: Ordinal Variable]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ordinal+Scalehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Halo+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vicarious+Learningstress.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Readjustment+Rating+ScaleScientific Method and has been called the Father of Empiricism. He was one of the first to utilize, and his written works popularized, physical observation and experimentation as a means of understanding the workings of nature and the world and was a major contributor to the scientific revolution of the 18th century.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Francis+Baconhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rosy+Retrospectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relative+Heightphrenology, a 19th century fad that touted the belief that the personality could be read by analyzing the shape of the skull. In our modern world many pseudosciences exist and are very popular, but it is important to carefully evaluate alternative healing methods, or other pseudoscientific beliefs, before blindly committing to one or more of them.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pesudoscienceneurons, synapses and axons that exist within the brain and nervous system. Infants are born with a massive number of available nervous synapses that, with growth, age and experience, reduce in number to include those which are useful and needed, while the unused disappear with time. For this reason it is important to create a mentally and physically stimulating environment for infants and children in order to maximize the neural pathways created before this pruning process begins.

See also: Pruning]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pruning+ProcessNeuropsychology, refers to the natural and lifelong physiological reduction of neurons, synapses and axons that occurs in the brains of mammals, including humans. This occurs primarily between birth and sexual maturity, although the process continues at a slower throughout the lifespan.

When an animal or person is born the brain contains an immense number of potential neural connections that, as the brain grows and the being learns to survive in its environment, reduce as the brain develops necessary and beneficial neural pathways. Neural connections that are not used and needed gradually disappear from the brain as it matures. This is one of these reasons why learning, both skills and academic knowledge (i.e. foreign languages), is much easier in childhood than later in life. Evidence indicates that richness of environment and experience, both in childhood and later life, influences the progress and extent of this neurological pruning.

See also: Pruning Process]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pruninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Persistence
Every human language reflects the values of the place and culture where it originated and philosophers and linguists have long debated how this effects and shapes the mentality of the persons who speak those different languages.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Linguistic+Relativity+Hypothesis
For instance, early computers were not very user-friendly; they were large (building-sized) and used magnetic tape and punch cards to create monitor displays that were monochromatic and written in code. Now, through the combination of research and technological improvements PCs, tablets, laptops, etc. are a user-friendly, everyday feature of life. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Human+Factors+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HardinessEncoding refers to the brain's ability to store and recall events and information, either short or long-term. This faculty can fail for a number of reasons; trauma or substance use being the most common. When this happens, it can prevent the brain from creating and storing memories. Many of us can identify times in our lives where, due to an accident, traumatic event or substance use, we are unable to remember specific events or actions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encoding+Failure
This type of bias, on its simplest level, can derive from the content of specific items, scale type, response format, and the general context of the study. For instance, in comparing two rat maze studies it would be necessary to compare the methods used; Was the same type of maze used? Was the same reward or punishment used? Were the results measured the same way? The researches need to ask these questions to determine whether the studies are comparable.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Common+Source+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Babinski+Reflexcognition (thought and understanding). More simply put, it is the study of how the physical brain and nervous system combine with the body, mind, intellect and other intangible factors of life to create patterns of thought and behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Neurosciencevariables that could affect what he is trying to investigate. Ideally, when a researcher designs an experiment, the only thing that should vary is the thing under study. All other factors that could affect the outcome must be strictly controlled by keeping them Constant.

For example, a researcher is interested in finding out if breastfeeding led to higher IQ in children. Many factors could affect IQ, like socioeconomic status, mother's age, or family setup, among other things. In order to make sure that any differences in IQ can only be attributed to the type of feeding received as a baby, the experimenter must find a way to control all of the other factors that could affect IQ scores. One way of doing that is by turning all of those other factors into Constants.

To do this, the experimenter could select participants that only come from the middle class, with mothers’ age ranging from 25-30 years old, in a nuclear family setup. Ideally, the only thing that would differentiate one group from another would be how they were fed as babies. One group would be children who were exclusively breastfed from birth until weaning, and the other group would be composed of children who were exclusively formula-fed from birth until weaning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Constant
However, if one time you pull down the blanket and instead of your face, the baby sees a hand puppet, he will likely squeal in delight again, just like he did when you first initiated the game. Now when you put up the blanket and then pull it down again to once more reveal your own face, you can expect the baby to have a renewed interest in you.

When we repeatedly experience a stimulus, we eventually get used to it, and stop responding the same way we did when we first encountered it. We become habituated to it and stop paying attention until we are given a new stimulus. And then when we are once again given the original stimulus, we respond to it with a renewed interest. Our previous habituation to it has been reversed. That is called dishabituation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dishabituationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Forgettinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bandwagon+Effect
Lymph nodes are found in the underarm, neck, and groin area, and can usually be felt as a tender swelling when there is an infection. The tonsils, spleen, and thymus are also part of the lymph system. The tonsils are actually clusters of lymphatic cells. The spleen contains the white blood cells that help fight infection, and the thymus is where T-cells mature, which are special cancer-fighting cells.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lymph+System
For example, a person with Low Frustration Tolerance may see a bunch of cars stopped at a red light and immediately concludes that "traffic is horrible and I'll never make it to work on time if I take this route. I'd better go find another route that has less traffic," and goes the long way around. In truth, he simply cannot tolerate having to stand still for a few minutes, and so would rather take the long way around than having to line up at the traffic light. The end result could be that by deciding to take an alternate route, he most likely took a longer time getting to the office, than if he had just waited for the green light.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Low+Frustration+ToleranceBroca's area, or that part of the brain that is involved in language expression, will render a person unable to communicate even when he is perfectly capable of understanding language.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Localization
People with Learning Disabilities may have trouble learning new things, but they often have normal or above average intelligence. One indicator of a Learning Disability is when an individual has low academic performance despite having average or above average IQ. While there is no cure for a Learning Disability, affected individuals may succeed in school and in life if they receive the right support and intervention.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learning+DisabilityBroca's area and Wernicke's area.

Broca's area is that part of the brain which when damaged, renders a person unable to express himself through speech, even when he can fully understand language. Wernicke's area on the other hand, is that part of the brain involved in understanding language. When this part is damaged by a lesion, a person's speech becomes senseless and incoherent.

Although both areas are still considered to be important in language, modern brain imaging techniques that allow us to see which parts of the brain are active when processing and producing speech have shown that the two areas are just part of a wider network that is involved in language.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Language+Centers
For example, a teenager who is caught cutting class and labeled as a delinquent, may be less motivated to attend class, thinking that there's no point in making an effort to attend class as no one expects him to be there anyway. Having skipped class, he is then unaware of assigned homework, and so fails to turn in his assignment, thus propagating the idea of being a delinquent student.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Labeling+Theory
In some Asian cultures, the terminologies siblings use to refer to one another not only distinguishes between gender, but also specifies one's birth order such that there is a "first/eldest brother," "third sister," "youngest brother," and so on. This suggests that in those cultures, one's birth order in the family comes with certain rights, roles, and responsibilities, that may not necessarily exist in an American family.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kinship+System
The observation method has the advantage of providing direct evidence of the phenomenon that is being studied. In the example above, the researcher gets data on how the children actually manage to share or not share. This is more objective than other ways of collecting data like for example, interviewing the children or their teacher.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Observation
For example, the Philippines was a former US territory, and was granted independence in 1947. However, its culture remains to be highly Americanized. For instance, a person is only commonly considered to be educated if he can communicate in English. Many women also go through great lengths to whiten their skin, since they believe that a Caucasian look is more attractive.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neocolonialism
For example, Carl Jung maintained Freud's notion of the unconscious mind as a repository of thoughts, urges, or feelings that are inaccessible from conscious thought but continue to influence our behavior. However, he added another dimension called the collective unconscious, which is a reservoir of unconscious memories that we inherited from our ancestors. The collective unconscious is where we get concepts of things like a nurturing mother figure, a wise old man, or an innocent child.

Another notable Neo-Freudian is Erik Erikson, who maintained the importance of childhood as the foundation of one's development, but veered away from the sexual aspect and instead focused on certain psychosocial crises that help to define an individual's personality.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neo-Freudian
See also: Post-Synaptic Neuron]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pre-Synaptic+Neuronneurotransmitters, only those that fit in or match its receptors. The signals received by the post-synaptic neuron tell it whether or not to fire its own electrical impulse and send communication to another cell.

See also: Pre-Synaptic Neuron]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Post-Synaptic+Neuron
This form of biased thinking occurs more often with negative events. When decisions lead to poor outcomes, people assign more blame and harsher punishment to the decision maker than if their decision had led to a positive outcome, even if the decision was well thought-out or the probability of success was to due to chance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Outcome+Biasperception, stimuli can be visual (sight), auditory (sound), tactile (touch), olfactory (smell), or gustatory (taste). When we read words on a page, the text acts as a visual stimulus that excites the cells in our retina, which converts the stimuli to electrical signals and sends these signals to the brain.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulusretina rather that at the edges. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peripheral+Visionmemories are lost over time. It is named after Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneering researcher of human memory. He showed that we start to forget items rapidly once we stop rehearsing the material; then the rate of forgetting (or memory decay) slows. He also showed that the more time we initially spend rehearsing information, the less time it takes to relearn it later, and information we spend more time rehearsing decays at a slower rate.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ebbinghaus+Retention+Curveauditory nerve directly, thereby helping people with profound to severe hearing loss perceive sound. Both children and adults can benefit from a cochlear implant.

The device consists of several external parts that sit behind the ear (a microphone, speech processor, and transmitter), a receiver placed under the skin, and electrodes implanted inside the ear (in the cochlea). The electrodes receive signals from the external parts of the device and send these signals to the auditory nerve.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cochlear+Implantworking memory system that handles auditory and verbal information, including language and music. It consists of two components: storage, where we briefly hold information in our short-term memory, and rehearsal, a mechanism by which we maintain and strengthen our memory of the information.

Research suggests that information held in the loop only lasts for 2 seconds unless it’s processed via rehearsal. You use the phonological loop whenever you try to memorize a telephone number or access code. You repeat the numbers to yourself in order, either saying them out loud or under your breath, to help you remember.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phonological+Loopworking memory responsible for handling visual and spatial information. It temporarily stores information on how things look and allows us to manipulate images in our mind, such as when we mentally rotate a shape to see how it might appear from a different angle or when we give directions to a friend to help them navigate through a city.

The visuospatial sketchpad also allows us to recreate images either based on something we’re seeing in real time or something we’ve seen in the past. If you’re drawing a flower, for example, you use the visuospatial sketchpad to hold a picture of the flower in your mind while you reproduce it on paper. Images on our mental scratch paper fade quickly though. While creating your drawing you have to either keep looking back at an actual flower or keep retrieving an image of a flower from your long-term memory. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visuospatial+Sketchpadhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sleep+Talkingself is real.

This view is generally regarded as egocentric, skeptical, and illogical, but solipsism raises important questions about the uniqueness of one’s experiences and mental states. For example, when I feel pain, how is it similar to or different from your sensation of pain? Can we ever really understand or know what is going on inside someone else’s head?]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Solipsism
Although it's important to study for an exam or practice for a game, there is a limit to how much time and energy we can invest and still expect to see an improvement. If we practice too much we’ll start to feel burned out and may even start performing poorly.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Law+Of+Diminishing+Returns+
Examples of hyperactive behavior are trouble sitting still and the inability to play quietly or to listen without interrupting. These behaviors cause problems at school or work and at home, but the symptoms can be managed with psychotherapy and/or medication. Males are more likely than females to be diagnosed with ADD or ADHD. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attention+Deficit+Disorder+%28ADD%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Satiation
Another example is when a man would think that all women are bad drivers just because of a lady acquaintance who happened to be not so good at driving. Overgeneralization is one of the most common types of cognitive distortions based on Aaron Beck’s cognitive theory. These different types were developed by David Burns, a student of Beck.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overgeneralizationmyelin sheath (protective coating) of the nerve cells that causes a great many diverse symptoms; pain and weakness in the body as well as mental and psychiatric symptoms.

The progress of the disease varies between individuals and is known to go into remission for varying periods of time. The cause of this condition is unclear but is believed to be a destruction of the immune system that may be associated with genetic and/or environmental factors or infections. There is no known cure at this time.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multiple+Sclerosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mentalism
If you've studied a foreign language, you may have learned that no two languages describe or conceptualize the world in exactly the same way. Each language possesses a hidden history of the culture and place in which it originated and those elements do not precisely translate into another language or mindset, only an approximation. An example of this is that the Eskimo language, because of the frozen environment where it originated, has many different words for snow that describes whether it is wet, dry, blowing, heavy, light, etc. while in English we have only one word for it.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Linguistic+Determinismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Homosexualityattribute a group's successes to its own efforts, and to attribute failures to outside interference. This can be seen in business settings where credit for success is given to employee efforts, successful advertising, etc., but where failures are instantly attributed to outside "sabotage" from competitors rather than examining possible internal factors. This can also be seen in families, and even ethnic groups, where success is seen as completely internal (without taking outside support into consideration) and where a "the world is against us" mentality consistently blames the outside world for all failures.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group-Serving+Biaspsychoanalysis). One of the most important ingredients of this type of therapy is to assemble a complementary group of personalities in order to form mutually beneficial relationships within the group.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+Psychotherapymemory. In simultaneous encoding, we perceive two or more stimuli or aspects of a stimulus at the same time rather than perceiving them one by one in a sequence.

For example, in the blink of an eye we can see a red car whizzing by us and know which direction it is traveling in and whether it’s going fast or slow. Our brains do not have to process the car color, speed, and direction separately. We are better at simultaneous encoding in vision than in the other senses. For example, in the sense of touch, it is difficult to perceive more than texture at a time. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Simultaneous+Encodingnonverbal communication made with movements of the hands or a change in body posture to express a feeling or idea. For example, a performer often bows after a show to give thanks and respect to the audience, and people make the thumbs up sign to convey “job well done” or “everything’s good.”

Symbolic gestures are also used to make requests: for example, putting the index finger to closed lips means “be quiet.” Meaningful gestures are found across cultures, but many are culture specific (the “thumbs up” sign is offensive in some countries).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Symbolic+Gestureembryo is referred to as a fetus. The prenatal period is a crucial time for physical development, in which the mother should be careful to avoid illnesses, nutritional deficiencies, and toxic substances that can harm the baby.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prenatal+Development
Retailers rely on the anchoring effect to sell goods and services. For example, if we are shopping for a bicycle and we see an ad for one at 30% off, we will approach that item with the impression that it is a great deal, even though it may still be more expensive than other bikes and may be out of our budget.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anchoring+Biasneuron (nerve cell). This electrical impulse is triggered by stimulation from other cells and acts to send information throughout the nervous system.

For example, if you touch a hot stove, nerve cells in your fingers will fire, sending impulses through the nerves in your hand, quickly reaching your brain, which will send a signal back down to move your hand away from the heat. Each neural impulse has the same intensity – a cell either fires or it doesn’t – but rate of the firings can differ. Some types of neurons fire faster than others.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neural+Impulsehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Irreversibility
Overlearning also leads to better performance in high-stress situations, for example taking an exam or performing in front of an audience, because what you’ve learned becomes second nature and requires less effort. So if you really want to master that Beethoven sonata you’ve learned on the piano, keep practicing it every day!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overlearningreliable. To achieve statistical validity, researchers must have an adequate sample size and pick the right statistical test to analyze the data.

Let’s say you're studying a new drug for headaches, and you compare the outcomes of a experimental group to those of a control group who didn’t receive the drug. You find that everyone in the experimental group improved, so you conclude that the drug caused their improvement. But you only had 3 people in the experimental group. With such a small sample size, your conclusions are not statistically valid. Your results could have been due to chance rather than the drug.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Statistical+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Policy+Skillshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Policy+Practiceretina, an area sensitive enough to pick up small details. Reading and watching TV are two activities that mainly use the focal visual system.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Focal+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+Psychological+Abusehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Grimacehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Grief+And+Loss+Issueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Greenhouse+Effect
A recent focus of study in Positive Psychology is the difference between the short-term emotion of gratitude and the personality trait of gratitude are being investigated.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gratitude
In psychology, especially cognitive psychology, this term can also refer to an active attempt to experience another person's first hand knowledge. This is a complex way of saying that as humans communicate with each other, it is possible to tap into another person's search for knowledge such as a close mentor-like relationship between a student and teacher.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gnosologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Globalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Global+Perspectivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gay+And+Lesbian+Issueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chemotherapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Generalist+Practicehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+Narcissismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Grief+Counselinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+Counselingretina at the back of the eye. Farsightedness is the result of the eyeball being too short, and/or the lens of the eye not being flexible enough, for proper focus to occur.

Farsightedness causes a person to have little trouble seeing things that are at a distance, but having difficulty seeing things that are close up. This problem is easily corrected through the use of corrective lenses (glasses).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Farsightednessingroup such as a group or organization. This ingroup does not have to be based on culture, or ethnicity, simply a membership such as a religion, organization, club, high school clique, sorority/fraternity, socioeconomic group, etc.

This view, especially the use of socioeconomic grouping as a focus of narcissism, is a frequent source of humor in situation comedies, i.e. extremely wealthy people who refuse to have anything to do with average people.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Collective+Narcissismfrequency distribution (the rate at which a measured event occurs) in comparison to the frequency distribution of another measured event. The chi-square equation is used make very fine distinctions between the expected probabilities of events against the actual measured occurrence of an event.

A common example of this type of distinction is the probability that exists when rolling one die. In this example, the probability of rolling any number between one and six is equal. In multiple rolls probability states that each number will come up an equal number of times, however the chance is that some numbers will randomly appear more often than other numbers. The chi-square equation is used to measure this type of difference.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chi-Squareadrenal gland secretes adrenaline as a response to stress. The adrenal cortex controls and mediates these stress responses through the release of various chemicals into the bloodstream. These chemicals, called mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, have the effects of controlling muscle tension, promoting weight gain or loss, etc. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenal+Cortexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+AcuitySocial Learning Theory. It refers to the process of learning behaviors through observation of reward and punishment, rather than through direct experience. For example, children who have grown up with older brothers and sisters often learn about behavior and expectations through watching their siblings. When they see their sibling get rewarded for a certain action, they learn that they should also do the behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vicarious+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Separation+Anxiety
For instance, I once knew a case where an elderly woman had been hospitalized for sudden psychotic symptoms (extreme fear and paranoia). After this problem was discussed with her family it was learned that a curandera (Hispanic folk healer) had prescribed juniper berry tea for her arthritis. Apparently this tea had worked well for the arthritis and the woman had drank a lot of it, but it also had toxic side-effects that caused the psychotic behavior. Once she had detoxed from the tea, she was fine.

See also: Psychosis]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychotichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overconfidence+Effect
This type of decline effects memory (especially short-term memory), problem-solving, attention span and language skills. Although commonly known as senility, dementia is commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease, but is often mimicked by other old-age problems such as depression or overmedication.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dementiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basal+Metabolic+Ratehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clairvoyanceneurotransmitter. Glutamate sends chemical messages in the brain by “exciting” neurons that are sensitive to it. Although it plays a vital role in learning, memory, and brain development, too much glutamate can be toxic. When a person experiences a head injury or stroke, glutamate floods the injured area and kills the neurons by overexciting them, causing brain damage.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glutamatehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ciliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Telekinesis
See also: Olfactory Bulb]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Olfactionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Passionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overcompensation
Many of us, in school and in the workplace, have met individuals who have become class valedictorians, or have achieved raises and promotions through hard work and goal-setting and many of these people can be considered overachievers. This may be associated with Type A Personality.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overachieverhallucination, it can be caused or triggered by trauma, dissociation, drug use, a near-death experience, oxygen deprivation, dehydration or electrical stimulation of the brain.

In spiritual settings the out-of-body experience is commonly known as spirit walking, soul travel, or astral travel, and can be deliberately induced through meditation or substance use. Many people report having had one or more of these experiences in their lifetime, but the phenomenon is not yet well understood.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Out-Of-Body+Experiencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ostrich+Effect
He or she works by conducting studies of employee behaviors and attitudes, training procedures, management systems and personnel interactions and works to make improvements through surveys, feedback, improved hiring practices, and changes in management techniques.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organizational+Psychologist
There are many who believe organizational culture is one of the most critical factors for a company's success. Having a great culture is not a guarantee for company success, but it may increase the probability for success....and certainly makes hiring and retaining great employees easier.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organizational+Culturehallucinations that are the result of physical illness or brain damage, rather than a psychiatric condition.

The diagnosis for this type of condition is now divided into three categories; delirium, dementia and amnestic. Delirium is a short-term condition that alters the perception of reality such as hallucinations caused by substance use or fever. Dementia is a chronic condition that is caused by the physical deterioration of the brain, such as is caused by Alzheimer's Disease, Amnestic psychosis is psychotic symptoms that are associated with a condition that has caused memory loss. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organic+Psychosis
This type of disorder is also divided into three forms; acute, chronic and encephalopathy. Acute refers to sudden, severe symptoms caused by disease or injury while chronic indicates a long-term condition that could be caused by abuse, neglect, physical deprivation (starvation) or severe trauma. Encephalopathy is a process of physical brain disease that starts with acute symptoms, but can then become chronic.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organic+Brain+SyndromeConduct Disorder, and is often a precursor to the adult diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Oppositional-Defiant+Disorder+%28ODD%29Opiates, as the term opiate refers only to opium-derived substances.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Opioid
This phenomenon can effect anyone and isn't caused by any known cognitive deficits. This term was first used by Arien Mack and Irvin Rock in 1992, and was used as the title of a book written by Mack that was published by the MIT press in 1998.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inattentional+Blindness
The F-scale was, in the wake of WWII, designed and named for identifying and measuring the negative and aggressive human traits that had been encouraged by the Fascist political movement that had swept through Europe in the early 20th century; aggression, conformity, cynical attitudes, susceptibility to superstition and stereotypes, conventionalism (belief in blind obedience and "fitting in"), and positive attitudes towards power, toughness, and destructiveness. The scale is still clinically used to measure prejudice and attitudes about power and authority.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=F-Scaleaxon, a long slender nerve fiber that conducts electrical signals to a nerve synapse (the gap between nerve cells). The signal then moves across the synapse to another axon by means of a neurotransmitter (an electrochemical substance).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Axon+Terminal
It is used for patients who are 15 years or older, but may be used for patients as young as 12 years old. A children's version of the test, called Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery for Children, is used for children between 8 and 12 years old. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Luria-Nebraska+TestDopamine, which is deficient in patients suffering from Parkinson's Disease, a disorder that affects movement, muscle control, and balance. The manufactured form of L-Dopa, called Levodopa, works by increasing Dopamine levels in the brain. It is the most effective drug in controlling the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease, which includes tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulties with walking and balance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=L-DopaHumanistic Psychology. This perspective places emphasis on the individual as one who is driven by a natural tendency to self-actualize, or to fulfill one's potential.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Soren+Kierkegaard
This was the first ever recorded mention of the concept, which describes a tendency to rely on what is familiar. The concept is also sometimes referred to as Maslow's Hammer, after Abraham Maslow, who rephrased the saying as "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abraham+Kaplan
For example, when you go to a job interview, the interviewer evaluates you based on your answers to the interview questions, but may also gather information about you based on how you are dressed (if you are dressed inappropriately, the interviewer may interpret it to mean that you are not taking the interview seriously enough), the strength of your handshake (a weak handshake may be interpreted as a lack of confidence), or how fast you speak (talking too fast may be interpreted as nervousness).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nonverbal+Communicationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reality+Testinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frustration
This concept has been transmitted into social psychology, as well as other humanistic psychology fields, to refer to the possibility that some individuals or groups that traditionally contribute to various causes, may cut their contributions if they feel that other individuals or organizations are benefiting more than they are contributing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Free+Riderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Foolishnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recklessnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relapse+Prevention+Program
For instance, you've probably seen examples of people acting angry to cover up embarrassment, or have seen young children cry and have meltdowns as reactions to being tired. Learning to understand these types of reactions is a part of the experience of growing up and maturing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Folk+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fields+Of+Practicehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Field+Researchhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fantasy
This view has recently been revived by American philosopher and cognitive researcher Jerry Fodor in his concept of the "modularity of the mind" that theorizes that some "modules" of the mind function autonomously to manage mental functions, including sensory input.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Faculty+Psychology
Many who suffer from this disorder go to extreme means to create illness such as tainting medical samples, using or misusing medications or illegal drugs, or self-injection of bacteria and other noxious or poisonous substances. The most severe and well-known form of this is Munchausen Disorder (where people create physical illness in themselves though various means as a way of gaining attention). This disorder also has a "proxy" form where a caregiver creates illness or injury in others.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Factitious+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Facial+Expression
You may remember that, when you were growing up, learning to use the facial expressions of parents, teachers and other adults as a means of gauging approval and safety. As we grow older, we learned about more subtle expressions such as annoyance, irritation, headaches, etc. Additionally, it is now medically known that some facial expressions can be signs of physical problems that can be recognized by trained practitioners. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Face+Perceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dyslexia
In some penal system approaches prisons have been considered rehabilitation facilities. In our modern world, many of the military veterans that return from war require rehabilitation for physical injuries and emotional problems.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rehabilitationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recidivismgene that carries information in the DNA, i.e., hair, skin or eye color, blood types, straight or curly hair, etc. but is hidden (not visibly present).

A child inherits only half of their DNA information from each parent and in this combination generally display the dominant genes they received. If they inherited only recessive genes for some trait, that is the trait that is displayed. This is why siblings can look very different from one another and why a person with two brown-eyed parents can be born with blue eyes (brown eye gene is dominant, blue eye gene is recessive) if they inherited a recessive blue eye gene from each parent.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recessive+Genenerve that receives and reads chemical signals (neurotransmitters) from other nerves to transmit the electrical signals that transfer information through the brain and nervous system. This happens in an area of the nerve called the synapse which is essentially where one neuron ends and another begins. If you're not familiar with this, please do review the definition of synapse.

This sounds complicated but it is a lot like a relay race where a stick or baton (neurotransmitter) is passed from one runner (synapse) to another (receptor) until it gets to the end of the race (the brain).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Receptor
See also: Reason]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reasoning
In the distant past people believed that gods, demons, evil spirits, etc. controlled the world and caused things to happen, both good and bad. However,through thought and observation eventually realized that the world operates through rules and natural forces that can be understood.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reason
For instance, people often accept things that they have been told since childhood as truth--but when they hear it reflected back to them, they can see the illogic or unfairness of something that they have always accepted as a fact., i.e. being told by a parent "you're ugly or stupid or worthless" and having let that define their self-image as an adult.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reflectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reenactmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reclusehypnosis to allow a patient to mentally return to a younger age to recall and examine traumatic events. This allows the patient to gain an understanding of those events (and their current issues) and cope with current problems.

Ultimately, the goal is to recover repressed memories of events from childhood that are having effects on current life functioning. Another controversial use of regression therapy, usually by "new age" style therapists is the attempt to recover memories from past lives as a means of explaining phobias or recurring dreams.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Regression+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sleep+Atoniahypothalamus gland that is found in the brain. Although very small (the size of a grain of rice) it interacts with many other areas of the brain and controls the circadian rhythm (the body's reaction to the day and night cycle) through the secretion of several body and brain chemicals such as peptides and neurotransmitters. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Suprachiasmatic+Nucleushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rote+Learningrole or persona and acts and reacts to situations and other participants in the exercise. This can be used as a means of illustrating or rehearsing behaviors so that the participants can learn new behaviors or alternative behaviors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Role+Playingrepressed to allow a person to continue to function as needed. Resentment is an emotion that is aimed at persons of higher status or power at whom person is not able to safely express anger.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Resentmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decoding
Alogia is usually associated with organic mental problems such as schizophrenia, mental retardation or dementia, it is usually caused by damage to left hemisphere of the brain. Alogia is normally considered a type of aphasia (speech difficulties related to brain damage), however it is sometimes seen in clients as a voluntary behavior that is motivated by a desire to avoid answering questions. For example. a therapist asks questions that tries to get a client to open up about their feelings or thoughts, only to have the client respond with only yes or no answers.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alogiasemantic memory (verbal memory) and episodic memory (event memory).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Source+Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recurring+Dreamadrenaline and causes a person to take whatever action they need to save themselves from that danger. For instance, while driving a car you see an accident occur just in front of you and you immediately take whatever action is necessary to avoid becoming part of that accident.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Realistic+Anxiety
Some people with reading disorders have to expend so much effort decoding words that they are unable to derive meaning from them. While not a well-understood problem, it is believed to be caused by differences in mental "wiring" and can be hereditary. Fortunately, with modern educational research, there are now methods of coping with reading disorders.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reading+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reactivity
In its inhibited form the child fails to interact with others; In the disinhibited form the child forms excessive and indiscriminate relationships with others. In its most severe manifestations children with this disorder can be violent and essentially lack a conscience, which can lead to destruction of belongings, torture and killing of animals, arson, and even murder attempts.

This disorder is most often seen in adopted children, or orphaned/abandoned children that have been raised in impersonal institutional environments (orphanages). Although a severe and pervasive disorder, with proper help and therapy, this disorder can be treated successfully.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reactive+Attachment+Disordermania, it exists as one of the spectrum of symptoms seen in Bipolar Depression.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypomanic+EpisodeVisual learners are thought to learn best through visual aids like pictures, watching movies, or working with graphic organizers. Auditory learners prefer to attend a lecture or listen to a podcast. Kinesthetic learners learn best when they are allowed to touch, feel, and manipulate objects, perform experiments, or build models.

Proponents of Learning Styles believe that the best educational outcomes can be achieved by identifying each student's learning style and tailoring instruction to fit their individual style. However, this idea has not been fully supported by research.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learning+Styles
The Law of Contiguity states that we associate things that occur close to each other in time or space. For example, if we think of thunder, we immediately think of lightning, since the two often occur one after the other.

The Law of Similarity states that when two things are very similar to each other, the thought of one will often trigger the thought of the other. For example, when we think of coffee, we often think of tea as well.

The Law of Contrast states that the thought of something is likely to trigger the thought of its direct opposite. For example, when we hear the word "hot," we often think of the word "cold."

These three basic laws were later revised and expanded by other associationists, but the Laws of Association can be considered as the seeds from which we can trace the beginnings of Psychology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Laws+Of+Associationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Labile+Affect
For example, the test administrator taps each cube in order from left to right (1st cube, 2nd cube, 3rd cube, 4th cube). The subject is then expected to copy the same sequence. A four-year old child is expected to be able to copy that pattern. The pattern 1, 2, 3, 4, 3 is expected of a five-year old, and so on.

This test is said to be useful in identifying neurological disorders like Attention Deficit Disorder.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Knox+Cube+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Knee+Jerk+Reflex+%28Patellar+Reflex%29
Individuals affected with Kleinfelter's Syndrome usually have smaller testes that produce less of the male hormone testosterone, which leads to symptoms like breast enlargement, reduced facial and body hair, and infertility. Boys with the syndrome may have weaker muscles and as they age, tend to grow taller than their peers. They may also have problems with learning and language.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kleinfelter%27s+Syndrome
For example, when we see someone frowning, nostrils flaring, and brows furrowed, we can tell that they're feeling angry. If they are making big gestures with their arms and pounding their fists, we can guess that the person is fuming mad.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kinetic+Informationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kinesthetic+Methodordinal scale, meaning that the order or rank of the categories is important. For example, a researcher asks respondents to choose one of the following to rate their job satisfaction:

(1) not at all satisfied;
(2) slightly satisfied;
(3) mostly satisfied; or
(4) completely satisfied.

The numbers on this scale are arbitrary and are only used to show order. In another example, if you review a restaurant and assign it a rating from 1 to 5 stars, you’re expressing that rating as an ordinal variable. Four stars is better than 2 stars but not necessarily twice as good as 2 stars.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ordinal+Variable
When faced with a difficult decision, such as whether to remove a child from a home, a social worker may report that they relied on gut feeling or intuition to guide them. But their decision was probably influenced by practice wisdom and experience.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Practice+Wisdom
They then write new policies and may also participate in measuring policy outcomes. For example, an analyst working in education policy might draft recommendations for a state education board to improve special education programs in that state.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Policy+Analysishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Policy+Advocacy
Own race bias poses problems for eyewitness identification (for example, picking a criminal out of a line-up) because people are less accurate when identifying individual members of another race. In fact, research has shown that when the witness and suspect are of different races, the witness has a 50% chance of making the wrong identification. This phenomenon is probably not due to prejudiced attitudes but rather to a lack of exposure to people of other races and lack of practice perceiving that race’s facial features. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Own+Race+Bias
Preschool and elementary school teachers use sociometric rating scales to measure how a child is accepted or rejected by his or her classmates. This information can help teachers and other school staff address problems with social skills and self-esteem at an early age. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sociometryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Floatershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eardrum+%28tympanic+Membrane%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dichromatichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depth+Of+Field
See also: Reciprocity Norm]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reciprocity
This type of relationship is one therapists attempt to cultivate with clients. This level of honesty, trust, and mutual communication is essential for an effective therapeutic relationship.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rapportbipolar disorder (manic depression), with the same cycle of depressive and manic episodes or hypomanic episodes, but with these cycles being relatively brief and rapidly shifting (averaging 4 manic/depressive cycles per year). Like the other types of bipolar disorder, this condition can be successfully treated with medications.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rapid-Cycling+Bipolar+Disorderneuron activity that activates the brainstem during REM sleep.

In other words, as the body and brain cycles through the day and night, the chemicals that activate the nerves of the brainstem shift and change. As they change, they trigger brain activity that activates memories that come to the surface during periods of the light REM sleep that we all experience.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Activation-Synthesis+Hypothesis
These conditions may or may not occur despite a genetic predisposition. Statistically, the chance of two identical twins both being diagnosed with schizophrenia is estimated to be around 50%, and fraternal (non-identical) twins being around 15%.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Concordance+Ratehttp://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/ig/Optical-Illusions/Zollner-Illusion.htm

See also: Mueller-Lyer Illusion]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zollner+Illusion
You can see an example here (not on AlleyDog.com): Click here to see an example

See also: Mueller-Lyer Illusion]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vertical-Horizontal+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=MindHypochondriasis is a severely debilitating condition that creates many difficulties for the sufferer.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypochondriacal+Reaction
This school of therapy differs from more traditional therapy methods in that it concentrates on the client's relationships and interactions with their environment and how they express these relationships through their feeling, thinking and being. This style of therapy attempts to explore and transform the consciousness, rather than merely changing thought patterns or behaviors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Holistic+Psychology
Similarly, we're also familiar with the way that people sometimes say things that seem polite or socially acceptable, rather than what they really mean, or really want to say. With practice and study, it is possible to determine what people are really thinking from their appearance and actions, rather than relying on words.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kineme
A practical example of this is a teacher assigning an essay or research paper where the student is asked to express their own ideas based on the information presented in class and/or personal research. In this case factual knowledge is combined with original thinking to formulate new ideas.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=K-Linehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypomaniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HypnoticInfantile Amnesia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Infantilehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypoglycemia
Interestingly, young children are better able to survive hypothermia with documented cases of children surviving lengthy stays in cold water and/or with body temperatures that have dropped as far as 55.4 degrees F.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypothermiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypnotherapy
The most common symptoms of hyperthyroidism are nervousness and irritability, inability to gain weight, and thin, brittle hair. The most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Grave's disease, a condition that causes the thyroid gland to swell and over-secrete hormones.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperthyroidismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hybridhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Huntingdon%27s+Chorea+%28Huntington%27s+Disease%29Stanford Binet test, as well as several other tests of memory and recall. The Stanford-Binet test is used because is it relatively insensitive to brain damage symptoms.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hunt-Minnesota+Test+For+Organic+Brain+Damagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Homologoushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Handwriting+Scaleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hydrocepahalus
For example, someone may think they have a real chance at winning the lottery but very little chance of dying in a car accident, when actually the likelihood of dying in a car accident is much higher than winning a large lottery jackpot. This irrational tendency toward the positive brings both advantages and disadvantages. Overconfidence can boost self-esteem and ambition but can also lead to failed plans, financial difficulties, accidents, and other problems.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Optimistic+Bias
Institutional review boards require researchers to obtain informed consent to ensure studies meet today’s ethical and legal standards. Usually, participants provide consent by reading and signing a printed form or electronic document.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Informed+Consenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diplopiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intrinsic+LightElaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion, people tend to take this route when they are not that interested in the topic or product or when their understanding of it is low. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peripheral+Route+Processinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Humanismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Human+Potential+Movementprojective test (test intended to measure personality aspects) that is used in conjunction with other standardized tests (e.g., Wechsler, Rorschach, Bender, TAT) to understand and evaluate aspects of a person's personality.

When taking this test the person is instructed to draw a picture of house, a tree and person. Then they are asked to describe the pictures drawn. The assumption is made that the person's explanation will reflect their current reality, or experiences from their past. The administrator of the test then uses tools and criteria to evaluate the results to create a synthesis or "picture" of the person's cognitive, emotional, intrapersonal and extrapersonal functioning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=House-Tree-Person+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hindsightpons, cerebellum and medulla, and is responsible for regulating basic human functions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hindbrainhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Higher+Mental+Processeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heroin+Intoxicationfetus to possess both male and female sex organs, both internal and external. This trait is now commonly called ambiguous genitalia. The newer, and more politically correct term for a hermaphrodite is "intersexed." This condition can be surgically repaired to reflect either male or female genitalia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hermaphroditehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heredityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemorrhagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hemiplegiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hematomahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hedonism
This scale is used by health professionals in clinics and at-home observation to measure a child's growth and physical development, as well as to measure whether a child is meeting developmental milestones such as rolling over, visual tracking, vocalizing, etc. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hampstead+Baby+ProfileDSM-4/DSM-5 that is used to refer to depression/anxiety that is a result of, and comorbid with, the ongoing and/or excessive use of hallucinogens such as LSD, Peyote, etc. This term is a subdivision of Substance-Induced Mood Disorder. Substance use is known to deplete the brain's neurochemicals; serotonin, dopamine, etc. and this is part of the physiology that creates mood disorders.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hallucinogen-Induced+Mood+Disorderhallucinations (visual, verbal or physical illusions) that can be confused with reality while under the influence.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hallucinogen+Intoxicationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hallucination
This support can take the form of assistance in finding work, emotional support. mental health counseling, physical support (room and board). and practical assistance (life skills help), and many other areas of need.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Halfway+Househttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hamilton+Rating+Scale+For+Depressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Handednesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Habit+Disturbance+Of+ChildrenAutism.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Habit+DisorderAbraham Maslow and Carl Rogers who broke with the earlier psychological thinkers like Freud and Skinner whom they felt were overly pessimistic about human nature.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Humanistic+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Human+Behavior+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hostilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hostile+Aggressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Homophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Homogamyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Holistic+Counselingobsessive-compulsive disorders, in extreme cases hoarding can create health and fire hazards for the victim through the accumulation of paper products, food, animals, etc. that block exits and encourage the growth of vermin and other health hazards.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hoardinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Healthy+Living
Kohlberg divided his six stages of ethical behavior into 3 stages pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional (related to age and maturity) that are then subdivided into two other stages that describe the moral rationales for the adoption of ethical behaviors. For example, avoiding punishment, doing the "right thing", positive benefit to society, etc. These stages are based on the premise that mastering the lower stages of moral development is essential for aspiring to the higher levels of achievement.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kohlberg%27s+Stages+Of+Moral+Development+
This area of organizational management focuses on improving performance, competitive advantage innovation and general organizational improvements. Knowledge management, unlike computerized information management, takes advantage of the human dimension of experience, insight, planning, and other factors that are beyond the scope of mere stored information.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Knowledge+Managementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Knowledge
First medically described in the early nineteenth century, it is now classified as part of either an impulse-control disorder, or (controversially) as part of the spectrum of obsessive-compulsive disorders and is most often comorbid with other disorders like anxiety, eating disorders and/or substance abuse.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kleptomania
This term was originated in 1952 by anthropologist Ray Birdwhistell during his study of filmed interactions between people that was intended to analyze different levels of communications. Birdwhistell estimated that "no more than 30-35 percent of human communication is carried by words", with the rest or communication being non-verbal.

By the time we become adults we are accustomed to identifying major body language cues that indicate discomfort, irritation, anger, flirtation, happiness, etc. in other people, but with study there are a great many other more subtle indications that can be identified.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kinesicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kubler-Ross+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multinational+Corporationshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multiculturalismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mirror-Image+Misperceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mindfulness+Psychotherapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Metapsychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mentorshipanxiety, depression, personality disorders or organic brain disorders that affect an individual's ability to function adequately in the world. These types of problems can be emotional or physical in nature and influence a person's ability to cope with life and the world.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Health+Conditionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Loss+Aversionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Loading
An example of this is how the moon, when high in a dark sky, appears to emit light. This type of visual illusion is believed to be the result of a mathematical ratio between the degrees of brightness that the eye and brain is capable of discriminating.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lightness+ConstancyAbraham Maslow invented the term Instinctoid to differentiate the basic human physical needs for personal survival from their higher, but less physically essential, behavioral needs. These instinctoid needs are the basic needs of food, water, and shelter. Beyond these basic needs are the less tangible behavioral needs; love, acceptance, belonging, achievement, etc.that are important for becoming a well-balanced and completely functional person. These needs are detailed by Maslow in his postulated Hierarchy of Needs.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Instinctoidepisodic memories (memories where time, place and events can be identified) from early childhood, generally prior to age 3 or 4. If we think back, most of us have a few "snapshot" memories from childhood where we can remember a single scene or event, but can't normally place these single memories into a specific context.

This inability to remember events as a series is a result of the young child's undeveloped Limbic System (amygdala and hippocampus) where memories are chemically stored. Interestingly some children can remember events from earlier in childhood but lose access to those memories as they grow to adulthood.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Infantile+Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eclectic+Perspective
This approach to psychology originated with Sigmund Freud, who analyzed the mind in terms of physical drives, emotional needs, and other hidden forces. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychodynamics
See also: Psychodynamic Perspective]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychodynamic+Psychotherapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pluralistic+Ignorancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pluralism
See also: Deindividuation]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=IndividuationAlfred Adler that involves taking a holistic view of a client's character. This view diverged drastically from the Viennese school of psychoanalysis that Adler had originally been affiliated with and has been a great influence on the schools of psychology that came into existence in the late 20th century.

The term, individual psychology, is not used to mean a focus on the individual person, but to refer to the client's whole environment. The individual referred to means looking at the patient as an indivisible whole, rather than as a group of disparate parts or symptoms.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Individual+Psychologypopulation of persons who develop a medical condition to compute a percentage of chance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Incidenceincest - sexual relationships between close family members (parent/child, brother/sister, etc). The cultural reaction to Incest varies between cultures but can include legal solutions, fear of supernatural punishments, and others. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Incest+Taboo
See also: Incest Taboo]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Incesthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inappropriate+AffectCognitive Psychology that states that the context (environmental factors) that surrounds an event effects how an event is perceived and remembered. This effect, that is largely used in the science of marketing, holds that an event is more favorably perceived and remembered when the surrounding environment is comfortable and appealing.

For example, when a person goes shopping or eats out, they are much more likely to spend time in a comfortable and appealing environment thereby increasing the likelihood of making purchases and returning to shop or eat there again.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Context+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cliquehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moral+Exclusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Modernity
See also: Wechsler Intelligence Scale For Children (WISC)]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wechsler+Preschool+And+Primary+Scale+Of+Intelligence+%28WPPSI%29intelligence quotient (IQ) of school age children. Originally developed by David Wechsler, it is currently in its 4th revision (WISC-R IV) and was designed as a test that could be administered without reading or writing tasks for students 6-16 to generate a score that accurately reflects general cognitive abilities.

See also: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Preschool And Primary Scale Of Intelligence (WPPSI)]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wechsler+Intelligence+Scale+For+Children+%28WISC%29punishment (the addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior), a negative reinforcer seeks to reinforce positive behavior through the removal of something unpleasant.

For instance, a parent complains or nags until the child performs a chore such as cleaning their room. When the room is cleaned, the parent quits nagging. By removing the annoying nagging, the parent reinforces the good behavior and increases the chances the good behavior will occur again.

See also: Negative Reinforcement]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+Reinforcerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multiple+Memory+Systems+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Napoleon+Complexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Narcissismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Narrative+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Naturalist+Fallacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Telepathy
One entertaining example of this is about how a physics professor challenged his class to find 3 ways to use a barometer to find out how tall a building is:

Solution 1 - (the most conventional answer) was to measure air pressure at ground level and on the top floor and then do the math to calculate the height.
Solution 2 - was to tie a string to the barometer and lower it from the top floor and then measure the string.
Solution 3 was to take the barometer to the building manager or caretaker and say "I'll give you this barometer if you will tell me how tall the building is."

All three of these solutions used the barometer to get a legitimate answer, but two of these were not the conventional way to use it.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lateral+Thinking
In our modern world we often see examples of leadership in the cases of emergency situations where one person will take initiative and lead others to safety or solutions. Another example is summer camps, or street gangs, where one or more dominant and persuasive personalities will rise to a leadership position through force of personality.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Leadershiphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Managementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stroop+Effectpsychotherapy that is performed over a telephone rather than in a therapist's office. This can range from crisis counseling on a hot line for acute problems like suicidal thoughts to routine counseling for individuals or couples. Research implies that telephone counseling has roughly the same effectiveness as in-person counseling with many clients actually expressing a preference for telephone counseling.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Telephone+Counselinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Temporal+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Terminationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tetrahydrocannabinolhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+Of+Constraintshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Triskadekaphobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tympanic+Membrane
See also: Type A Behavior Pattern ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Type+B+Behavior+Patternhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=REM+Behavior+Disorder
Plants and electronics do not have thoughts or feelings. Whether animals think or feel is more controversial, as research has shown that many animals, such as dogs, are intelligent and do experience emotions, but their behaviors are not as complex as those of humans. We should not assume that a dog experiences shame or acts on that feeling in the same way as a human. Most scientists agree that when observing animal behavior or describing inanimate objects, we should be as objective as possible.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anthropomorphic+Fallacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Health+Counselinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Healthhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Blockdepression.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Melancholiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mediation
See also: Organic Solidarity]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mechanical+Solidarityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mathematical+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Matching+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mass+Hysteriahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Marriage+Counseling
This is quite similar to the Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Low-Ball+TechniqueSocial Psychology, that was first expressed in 1902 by Charles Horton Cooley. It states that the person's "self" grows out of their own social interactions and from the perceptions of others, or that a person's self-concepts are based on the beliefs and feelings about how others feel about them. This concept is based on the belief that human actions and interactions are based on conformity to other people's beliefs and perceptions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Looking-Glass+Selfhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Logotherapy
For example, if you had an Internal Locus of Control and you got a perfect score on your Statistics exam, you would tend to attribute your success to how much time and effort you spent studying for the test. If you had an External Locus of Control, you would probably say that it was because the teacher made the test easy, or it was just your lucky day.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Locus+Of+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Life+Stages
Liberation theology attempts to address these problems through practical means such as direct aid and by education and consciousness-raising among the population being targeted.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Liberation+Theologypsychodynamic theory that refers to a process that involves repeating, elaborating and amplifying interpretations of actions and reactions that is seen as a major step in the success of mental health therapy.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Working+Throughhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Women%27s+IssuesIntegral Theory, refers to the sense of sight and the information that is taken in through the eyes. However, given the wide-ranging and complex nature of the Integral Theory, this actually refers to incompleteness of what is perceived by the eyes and relayed to the mind without being integrated into the totality of existence.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Perceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vegetotherapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zero-Sum+Game
If Prisoner A confesses and Prisoner B denies, Prisoner A will be set free, while Prisoner B will be convicted for 10 years, and vice versa.
If both confess, they will both serve a six-year sentence.
If both deny, they will both serve a six-month sentence.


The best scenario for both prisoners is for each of them to deny involvement, earning them the shortest sentence of six months. But not knowing what the other prisoner intends to do might deter them from denying the crime. For example, Prisoner A could think this way: ""If Prisoner B confesses and I deny, he will be set free while I stay in prison for ten years. If he confesses and I confess, then we both serve six years. If Prisoner B denies and I deny, then we both serve six months. But if he denies anyway, then I'd be better off confessing because then, I'd go free. Either way, it's in my best interest to confess.""

The problem is Prisoner B could also be following the same line of thinking. Thus, they will both tend to choose to confess, earning them both a six-year sentence. The Prisoner's Dilemma Game illustrates how some people might choose an option where both parties lose instead of cooperating and maximizing the rewards for both parties.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prisoner%27s+Dilemma+Gamehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Occupational+Therapy
For example, if you had a group composed of an accountant, a chef, and a salesman, and you gave them a task of coming up with a food product that they can turn into a million-dollar business, their approach to the task would vary depending on their own biases as experts in their field of work. The accountant could see the project as basically a task that focuses on keeping costs down in order to increase profit. The chef could see the task as one that hinges on making a product of the highest quality by making use of only the freshest ingredients available, and applying the most sophisticated cooking techniques. The salesman could see the success of the task as dependent not on the product or the meticulous monitoring of costs and earnings, but on the creative marketing of the product, and coming up with a marketing and sales strategy that will bring in massive sales.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Occupational+Psychosis
For example, if workers at a certain office are found to have a high incidence of urinary tract infections, a practitioner of OHP would probably investigate to find out why so many employees are getting sick. He might learn that employees are not allowed to take drinks to their workstations, they seldom get up to go to the one available water cooler, and they do not take a lot of bathroom breaks. He might then come up with interventions like allowing workers to take drinks with covered containers, adding more water coolers, and conducting an information campaign aimed at encouraging workers to keep themselves hydrated and taking more frequent trips to the bathroom.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Occupational+Health+Psychology+%28OHP%29
The basic theory of TA theorizes that within every adult exists three states, the "Parent," the "Adult," and the "Child" and that these three parts of the personality interact with each other, and with other people in various and alternating ways to create interpersonal interactions and relationships. These interactions are generally composed of "strokes" (reactions) and "transactions" (communications) under the theory that people use communications to to seek "positive" strokes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transactional+Analysishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Traditional+Cultureshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tonal-Clonichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Legal+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Latahhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lapsus+Linguae+%28Freudian+Slip%29Freudian Slip".]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=LapsusAphasia. As these types of disorders are rooted in the physical brain, this type of problem can also affect the use of sign language.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Language+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lacunar+Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lifestyle+Balancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wildinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=White+Matterhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Voluntaryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vision-Logichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vestibular+SystemMax Weber. Weber defined the rationalization process as the practical application of knowledge to achieve a desired end result. In Weber's theorem and point of view this would mean the practical application of science and knowledge to the solving of social and political problems. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Value-Rational+Rationalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Utilitarianismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trigeminal+Nervehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trichotillomaniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thought+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Think+Tankhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Twin+Studieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vertical+Thinking
See also: Voyeurism]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Voyeurhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Withdrawal+SymptomsType A Personality and can be a precursor of stress-related illnesses such as high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Workaholichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zero-Defects+Mentalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tardive+DyskinesiaNature-Nurture Issue of human development.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tabula+Rasahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=TabooIvan Pavlov's classic experiments, his dogs were trained to salivate in response to a bell signal (conditioned stimulus) that they associated with being fed (conditioned response). However, at the same time the dogs might also have learned inadvertently to associate the time of day or the sound of a door (unconditioned stimulus) with being fed. In this way, the dogs were being conditioned to respond to multiple stimuli at that same time.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Simultaneous+ConditioningRetrograde Amnesia (event or trauma-induced) recent memories are more likely to be lost than more remote memories. This phenomenon is due to the fact that the brain stores more distant memories differently than it does recent memories. This law also implies that more distant memories are also less likely to be disturbed by disease or mental decline than short-term memories. For example, you may be familiar with the phenomenon of being able to vividly recall childhood memories while sometimes having difficulty remembering actions taken just a short time ago.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ribot%27s+LawEpisodic Memory (events) and Declarative Memory (knowledge), including autobiographical information. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrograde+Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Program+EvaluationClinical Psychologists receive training in both professional practice and scientific research and have a firm foundation of knowledge in both areas. According to this model, practicing psychologists should integrate Scientific Methods and findings into their decision-making and service delivery. Likewise, researchers ought to be more directly involved in clinical practice so that their studies are more relevant. This approach is also known as the Boulder model because it was developed at the Boulder Conference on Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology, held in Boulder, Colorado in 1949.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Practitioner-Researcher+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Practice+EvaluationCognitive-Behavioral perspective, while another follows a Humanistic Perspective.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Perspective
This format yields more useable data and more responses that can be analyzed. The forced-choice method may also refer to the use of only two response options in studies of sensation and perception. For example, in an experimental task assessing motion detection, researchers might present two images (labeled A and B) side-by-side on a video screen and ask the participant to quickly select which image contains a moving part.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Forced-Choice+Method
Psychoanalytic theory holds that that these unconscious processes can come to the surface as symbols in dreams, automatic thoughts (thoughts that occur without an apparent cause) and in “slips of the tongue.” ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconscious+Mindhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transfer+Of+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Touch+Illusion
Due to the massive amount of information that constantly bombards the human senses, activity in the sensory register remains only as long as the involved nerves are actually activated and the brain sorts out the information that needs further attention.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Registerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensorineural+Hearing+Losshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sampling+BiasPygmalion Effect, in which someone performs to a high level when others have high expectations.

Both of these are forms of Self-Fulfilling Prophecies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Golem+Effect
The opposite of this is the Golem Effect in which people perform worse when others expect little of them. Both of these are forms of Self-Fulfilling Prophecies. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pygmalion+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mood+Linkagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Informal+Reasoning
See also: Empiricism]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empirical+Investigationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dichotomy
See also: Declarative Memory]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Declarative+Knowledgemiddle ear). This is different from “sensorineural” hearing loss which refers to problems with the nerve connections between the eardrum and brain.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conductive+Hearing+LossRetrograde Amnesia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anterograde+Amnesia
Some mechanisms are responsible for coarse variations in light and dark, enabling us to detect silhouettes or the overall shape of an object. Other mechanisms are responsible for fine variations, which enable us to see the fine details of an image.

For example, when looking at a picture of a zebra, certain filters in our brain allow us to detect the overall horse-like silhouette, but we are able to distinguish the animal as a zebra because of other filters that detect the black and white stripes that our brain interprets as a zebra.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fourier+Analysishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operationalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Online+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nuclear+Family
A classic example of a Non-Zero-Sum Game situation is called the Prisoner's Dilemma, where two prisoners are interrogated separately, and are offered a bargain where if one confesses, he is set free, while the other prisoner is convicted for 10 years. If both confess, they both face 2 years in prison. If both keep their mouth shut, they would both serve 6 months for a minor crime. Obviously, the optimal choice for both of them would be to keep silent and serve the 6 months. But since they don't know what the other person intends to do, they will both fear that the other one might confess, leaving them to suffer the 10 years. This will then pressure them into protecting what they see as their best interest, and so they will tend to confess, resulting in both of them suffering a loss, and being convicted for 2 years. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Non-Zero-Sum+Gamehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nightmare
Negativism is a normal part of a child's development. It usually appears at around the age of two and lasts a couple of years, and indicates a child's budding independence. Adolescents are also known to be negativistic, as they begin to assert their identity as individuals. Negativism that persists beyond these developmental stages may be an indicator of a personality disorder.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negativismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fundamental+Frequencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psycholinguisticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychodramahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Premarital+Counselinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Physical+Attractiveness+Stereotypehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parenting+Issueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paralanguagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Painful+Memoriesmean), the middle of the score range (median), and the most frequent score (mode). Together, these measures provide a good overall snapshot of the data.

However, some measures of central tendency are better to use than others depending on the spread of a particular data set. For data values that are clustered around the center of the possible score range, the mean is the best representation of the data. For values that are clustered around one end of the data range, with outliers falling on the other end, the median gives a better picture of the data. For this reason, typical family income in the U.S. and many other countries is presented as a median rather than a mean.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Central+Tendency
According to this theorem, if we draw a random sample from a population and we plot all the possible means we might find in our sample, the distribution of these means will have the same mean and standard deviation as the population. Also, if we increase the size of our sample, the shape of our sampling distribution will become more normal.

The Central Limit theorem helps use determine how many cases or people we should sample based on the shape of the population distribution. If the population distribution is normal, as it is for IQ scores, then we do not need a large sample to be able to run accurate statistical tests analyzing that score. For data with a non-normal population distribution, such as income, we need a larger sample. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Central+Limit+TheoremHermann von Helmholtz. This theory implies that human vision is incomplete and that details are inferred by the unconscious mind to create a complete picture. Some of the assumptions that the brain makes from the eye's perception are motion and depth perception. Many of us have had the experience of, due to atmospheric conditions and/or distance, of believing that we see trees or buildings shimmering or moving, or of buildings or mountains seeing closer than they really are.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconscious+Inferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trauma+Systems+Therapy+%28TST%29
See also: Type A Personality]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Type+A+Behavior+Patternhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transfer+Of+Traininghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Traffic+PsychologyMax Weber as a part of his broad-based theorems on social organization. Weber defined the rationalization process as the practical application of knowledge to achieve a desired end result. He defined affective action as acting on the emotional state rather than rational weighing in of means and ends. Traditional action is defined as action guided by custom or habit. Combining these three terms means you come to conclusions or resolution by combining all three aspects - knowledge with both traditional and emotional inputs.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Traditional-Affectional+RationalizationPost Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). It was pioneered by Dr. Peter Levine in 1997 and was based on his observations of how animals in the wild deal with and recover from life-threatening situations.

This style of therapy is aimed at resolving the trauma symptoms (both mental and physical) by focusing on the patient’s somatic symptoms (perceived body sensations). Somatic experiencing requires the client to track and identify the feelings that were associated with the original trauma and then performs body work (physical manipulation through massage and physical movements) to relieve the physical symptoms that are associated with the trauma.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatic+Experiencinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensorimotor+Psychotherapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Engram
Her research showed that bringing these eye movements under voluntary control while reviewing traumatic memories reduced the anxiety associated with remembering those traumatic events. EMDR treatment is now approved and recommended in the Practice Guidelines of the American Psychiatric Association.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eye+Movement+Desensitization+And+Reprocessing+%28EDMR%29
You can learn more about beta waves, consciousness, and sleep here]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Beta+Waveshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vulnerable+Populationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vulnerabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Play+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phone+Therapy
The exact amount of personal space we need depends on personal preference and cultural background. According to Edward T. Hall, the average radius of intimate space is 1.5 feet. In densely populated areas, people may be used to a smaller amount of space. If you've traveled internationally, you may have noticed that different countries have different norms for personal space. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personal+Spacehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Performance+Psychology
See also: Pastoral Counselor]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pastoral+Counselingoutgroup as homogenous, or as “all the same,” whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogeneous or varied.

For example, a woman who lives in a big city might believe that everyone from the country or a small town is stupid, whereas she thinks that people from the city can be smart, stupid, or something in between. When the woman meets a small town person who is very intelligent, she considers him or her an exception to the norm. Overgeneralizing in this way about outgroup traits contributes to stereotyping.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Outgroup+Homogeneity+Effect
For example, construction workers build houses to shelter factory workers who produce the machines that the construction workers use to build the houses, and so on. As advanced societies grow large and diverse, they remain integrated due to member’s interdependence. In contrast, smaller, less complex societies are characterized by mechanical solidarity, in which cohesion is maintained through shared work, family ties, and similar values and lifestyles.

See also: Mechanical Solidarity]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organic+Solidarityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Status+Offenderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dynamic+Visual+Acuity
Direct Scaling Techniques could also be applied to things like perceived prestigiousness of an occupation, perceived attractiveness of a person, perceived friendliness, etc.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Direct+Scaling+Techniqueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Duplex+Theory+Of+Texture+Perception
For example, if you were to hold your thumb close a couple of inches in front of your face and you focused your eyes on it, you would be able to see it clearly in single vision. At the same time, there is an area that extends from your thumb, which you also see in single vision. That is the Horopter. Beyond your thumb, or farther away from the Horopter, your vision would be blurry or you would see double images.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Horopterretina, which respond only to stimuli that are moving in a preferred direction. For example, a cell with a preference for upward movement will only respond when presented with an upward-moving stimulus, and will be unresponsive to stimuli that are moving in other directions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Direction+Selectivityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Direction-Selective+Cells
Let's say you were reporting the average weight of a one-year old baby. Let's assume that the true value was 10kg, meaning if you were to weigh every single baby in the country, that would be the value that you would get. Since it would impractical to do this, you decide to get a sample of 100 babies, giving you an average weight of 9.5kg. This is slightly different from the true value, but close enough.

Why the discrepancy? Because no sample can perfectly represent the entire population. In fact, if you were to get 3 samples of 100 babies each, you could expect to get 3 different average weights. This is because every sample is slightly different from other samples, even if they all belong to the same population. For this reason, it is useful report results in terms of Confidence Intervals. A narrow Confidence Interval with Confidence Limits close to each other (for example, 9.5kg to 10kg) indicates that you are more precise, while a wide interval with Confidence Limits farther apart (like 7kg to 11kg) indicates less precision. In both cases, the true value of 10kg still falls within the interval.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confidence+Limits
For example, if you wanted to know how well you were performing in your Psychology class compared to your Philosophy class, you cannot simply compare your grades from the two classes, since each class is composed of a different population. So if you got a grade of 90 in Psychology and an 85 in Philosophy, it would not automatically mean that you were doing better in your Psychology class. If most of the Psychology students were getting scores in the 90s, then you might just be performing in the average range. If most of the Philosophy students were getting scores in the low 80s, then you might even be one of the top performers in that class. The only way to find out would be to convert each of your scores in the two classes into Z-Scores. Let's say you got a Z-Score of 1.0 in Psychology, and 1.2 in Philosophy. This would tell you that even if you got a lower score in Philosophy, you are actually performing better in that class compared to your Psychology class.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Z-Score+%28Standard+Score%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transpersonal+Experiencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transference+Neurosisalpha waves and beta waves. Alpha waves are a medium frequency brain wave while beta waves, irregular low frequency waves, indicate a very alert and attentive state of mind.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wakefulnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Volition
This technique is often used in schools or in parenting to change children's behaviors. It's also used in in-patient programs.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Token+Economypost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), formerly called "shell shock." It is characterized by an unfocused stare, extreme emotional detachment, and an unwillingness or inability to communicate.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thousand-Yard+Stareschizophrenia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thought+Withdrawalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thinking
See also: Electra Complex]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Penis+Envy
IFS uses the “family systems” theory to understand how these subpersonalities organize themselves to form the “self” or predominant personality. Each subpersonality has a role, or a “job” in the group, some positive and some negative. This approach to therapy promotes harmony and internal connections within this internal group.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+Family+Systems+Model+%28IFS%29
For example, children often feel guilty about parental divorce, believing that it was somehow their fault that their parents split up. Until they learn to understand that they had no personal fault or blame in the situation this guilt can lead to a great deal of emotional fallout.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Guilthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Womb+EnvyCognitive-Behavioral Therapy, Trauma Systems therapy, EMDR, Somatic Experiencing, Biofeedback, Internal Family Systems Therapy and Sensorimotor Psychotherapy, or others based on the training of the therapist and preferences of the client.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trauma+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Traumahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transvestism
These areas of human mind and experience encompass the broader aspects of human experience including not only life, but also the psyche and the cosmos. Or, in simpler terms transpersonal psychology studies and takes into consideration how the human mind interacts with and uses spiritual and religious concepts to establish to themselves their place in the universe.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transpersonal+Psychology
See also: Hallucination]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Hallucinationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Weapon+Focus
An example of this might be how a person who firmly believes in the existence of and power of supernatural forces, i.e. voodoo or witchcraft, is much more likely to suffer from illnesses or injuries that they believe could be brought about by practitioners of those arts.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thomas%27+Theoremhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theoretical+Psychology
Also frequently noted is numbness, tingling, and migration of pain throughout the body, all of it without any identifiable organic or physical source. It is generally treated through a combination of psychotherapy, education, journaling, group therapy and resumption of a normal life, rather than resting.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tension+Myositis
He was the author of many important and influential works on economic sociology and the sociology of religion and an advocate of interpretive methodology (placing an emphasis on understanding the purpose and meaning of human activity) rather than the “empirical” approach that concentrates on the collection and interpretation of data.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Maximilian+WeberIntegral Theory. This theory attempts to unite and integrate information taken from many disparate areas of academic study as a means of understanding the totality of human knowledge.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kenneth+WilberKen Wilber, is a philosophy that attempts to synthesize the best of pre-modern, modern and post-modern realities into a cohesive “theory of everything.” Originating as an outgrowth of the transpersonal psychology movement that attempted to blend western and non-western approaches to understanding the nature of consciousness it now incorporates a large number of diverse academic and professional approaches.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Integral+Theory
Likewise his research in physics provided new theories of conservation of energy, electrodynamics, and both chemical and physical thermodynamics. His contributions to philosophy included his philosophy of science, the relationship between perception and the laws of nature, esthetics and the civilizing power of science.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Herman+Ludwig+Ferdinand+Von+Helmholtz
Other habits can be unhealthy or destructive, especially if they rise to the level of being an addiction (smoking, using drugs), or a compulsion (i.e., hair-pulling). Habits can be changed or broken through effort and/or with the help of therapy if they are causing difficulties in everyday life.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Habitshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Learning
For example, imagine that I just told you, "Don't think about pink crocodiles. Whatever you do, do not think about ping crocodiles". This makes it very difficult to not think about such an outrageous image.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=White+Bear+Principle
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia is different from Paranoid Schizophrenia in that undifferentiated lacks the paranoid symptoms (sense of persecution) that is part of paranoid schizophrenia. The onset of this disease process usually starts in young adulthood (late teens or early twenties). The specific causes are not clearly understood although there is evidence that genetics, early environment, neurobiology and psychological factors may all be contributing factors to this condition.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Undifferentiated+Schizophreniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thought+Insertionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thought+Field+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thought+Broadcasting
Later on, he suggested that existential and moral intelligence might also be worth including. This theory explains how some rare individual, such as prodigies and savants, may exhibit incredible talents in some areas while being average, or even below average in other skill and ability areas. The movie, Rainman, illustrates an autistic savant who is mentally handicapped in most areas of functioning but has a photographic/eidetic memory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+Of+Multiple+Intelligences
For example, you may view yourself as a happy, good natured person, but recognize that others may not always be exactly like you - others may be angry, hurtful, etc.

The theory also states that there are mental conditions that prevent some people from being able to recognize mental states in others. Some conditions that interfere with this include autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, ADHD, etc. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+Of+Mind+%28ToM%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+Of+Deadly+Initialshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ternus+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Receptive+Aphasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tree+Of+Knowledge+%28ToK%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transvestic+Fetishismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trust+Metric
The ideas then go from the opinion leaders back down to the wider population as a whole. This model was first introduced in 1944 by Paul Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet and then elaborated on in 1955 by Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. These two stages of how information from the media moves suggests that opinion leaders take the media and then pass it along to others with their perceptions and opinions of the content along with it (this is called the opinion leaders' "personal influence"). ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Two-Step+Flow+Of+Communication
See also: Generalization]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Universal+Law+Of+Generalization
For instance, a young person has finally “come out” about being gay and is feeling isolated and rejected by family and friends. As this is not an uncommon feeling for a person in this situation, it is useful for a professional to help them understand that there are many other people feeling, or have felt, the same way.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Universalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Valence
See also: Value Theory]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Value
See also: Value]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Value+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vigilancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Voodoo+Deathpsychotherapy or talk therapy that is designed to help the client to deal with emotional and psychological difficulties.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Therapy
For example, when deciding between two political candidates in an election, you may choose to vote for the one affiliated with your preferred party, without researching their individual views or background.

See also: Heuristic]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heuristic+CueB. F. Skinner that argues that behavior, rather than mental states, should be the focus of study in psychology.

Skinner’s science of behavior emphasizes the importance of reinforcement and the relationships between observable stimuli and responses. Behaviors do not depend on thoughts, feelings, or other internal processes; rather, they are natural events that occur as a result of other events in the environment. Benefits and consequences of a behavior either increase or decrease the probability of that behavior occurring in the future. For example, if Sarah bites her nails, she does so not as a conscious or unconscious decision to relieve anxiety but because the behavior is rewarding in some way. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Radical+Behaviorism
Decision rules are used in the medical field to guide diagnosis and treatment. For example, if a patient has ankle pain, swelling, and bruising, the doctor should order an X-ray.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decision+Rules
For example, a child’s income level and his or her performance in school are positively correlated; children from wealthier or more financially stable homes tend to do better in school.

See also: Correlation and Negative Correlation]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Correlation
See also: Correlation and Positive Correlation]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+Correlationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wisdomhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wellnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Volley+Principlehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Type+C+Personality
This is a fancy way of saying that memories are most easily retrieved when the individual is in the same state of mind as when the memory was first stored; happy memories are most easily retrieved when a person is happy, likewise sad or angry memories are most easily retrieved when in the same frame of mind.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transfer-Appropriate+Processinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personality+Typehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Symbolic+Play
There are two major types of Surrogate Motherhood. Traditional or Genetic Surrogacy is when the surrogate mother's own egg is used and fertilized by the husband's sperm through artificial means. Gestational Surrogacy is when the baby is not genetically related to the surrogate mother. The embryo that is implanted in the surrogate mother may be from the husband and wife's own sperm and egg, or from another donor's.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Surrogate+Motherhoodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Substantive+Complexityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperopic+%28hyperopia%29
To understand Hypercolumns, we need to know what columns are. A column is a group of three cells, with each cell responding to a different aspect of a visual stimulus. For example, when presented a thick, vertical, blue line, one cell interprets the thickness of the line, the second cell interprets the orientation of the line, and the third cell interprets the blue color. They work together to enable you to see a thick, vertical, blue line. A column receives information from either the left eye or the right eye.

A Hypercolumn is a set of columns that function as a unit that enables us to see one specific portion of the visual field. It is composed of at least two columns, one with information from the left eye, and another with information from the right eye. A group of Hypercolumns  working together allows us to see one complete picture.

See also: Column]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypercolumn
See also: Hypercolumn]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Column
Suppose that we have a stationary ambulance, and we are standing 100 feet in front of it. Let's say that siren of the ambulance was emitting its warning sound at a frequency of one per second. Imagine each sound as a circle traveling outward from the siren. We would then have a series of concentric circles being emitted from the source, with each circle reaching us at a rate of one per second. As the ambulance starts moving towards us, it continues to emit a sound at the same frequency. But this time, since it is moving closer to us, each circle reaches us at a faster rate, or at a higher frequency, causing us to perceive the sound at a higher pitch. As soon as it passes is, the pitch suddenly lowers. This is because as the ambulance moves away from us, each circle takes longer to reach us. The sound is now moving at a lower frequency, causing us to hear a lower pitch."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Doppler+Shift+%28doppler+Effect%29
For example, we wanted to find out the average age at which babies learn how to use the potty. Since we cannot survey the entire population of babies, we just take a sample of let’s say 50 babies, and find out the average age at which they were successfully potty-trained. Let’s say that from that sample, we learned that the average age of potty-training is 25 months. Since we expect those 50 babies to be sufficiently representative of the entire population of babies, we can say that the average toilet training age is 25 months.

If we were to get another sample of 50 babies from the same population, we would get a similar result, like maybe 26 months, but probably not the exact same value. If we keep getting other samples, we could get other values like 24 months, or 25.5 months, and so on. This is because every sample is slightly different from another sample even if they all represent the same population.

Now, the actual average age, or the true value from the population, could fall anywhere between those values. In this case, our Confidence Interval may be 24 - 26 months. That is why it is useful to report our findings as a range of values, or as a Confidence Interval.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confidence+Intervalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurogenesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pupillary+Response
When a researcher conducts a study, the data that he gathers needs to be converted into an appropriate statistic, in order for them to be analyzed and interpreted. For example, if he was using a statistic called the t-test, he would convert the results into a t-value. This t-value will then be compared to a critical value, that is determined by referring to a table that lists down critical  values for the t-test. Any value higher than the critical value will cause the researcher to conclude that the treatment he applied has a significant effect on the variable under study.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Critical+Valuehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Three-Term+Contingencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Think-Aloud+Protocolshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+Of+Ecological+Opticsaxons (long, threadlike nerve cells) that hold vesicles (small sacs) that contain neurotransmitters (chemicals that stimulate brain cells). The neurotransmitters provide a chemical signal that links the nerve cells to one another.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Terminal+Buttonshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tend-and-Befriend+Response
It also promotes and fosters communication between researchers, teachers and practitioners who study these issues and attempt to apply them to the promotion and advancement of peace and violence prevention.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peace+Psychology
See also: Independent Construal of Self]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interdependent+Construal+Of+Self
See also: Interdependent Construal of Self]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Independent+Construal+Of+SelfAIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) in humans. AIDS weakens the immune system through the destruction of white blood cells and eventually leads to death from diseases that the body was unable to fight against. HIV infections are spread through the transfer of infected body fluids.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HIVhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Healthhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=G+%28g+Factor%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Formal+Assessmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Five-Factor+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synaptic+Transmissionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sympathetic+Divisionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Persuasionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Terminal+Drophttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tacit+Knowledgehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spontaneous+Abortion
For example, if Sally has 8 friend connections and Billy has zero, then Sally is clearly more popular and influential than Billy. This information can be used to target interventions for specific children (such as social skills training for Billy) and provide guidance on how to best arrange group projects or assigned seats.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sociogram
Social play begins in preschool and is crucial for developing social skills and establishing friendships. Through social play, children learn how to share, cooperate, take turns, and express emotions. Social play also promotes physical activity and moral reasoning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Playhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Small-For-Date+Babieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Slow-To-Warm-Up-Childhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Great+Person+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Variance
For example, when counting money, $10 is twice the amount of $5, and $0 is the complete absence of money. So money can be measured with a ratio scale. But temperature in degrees Fahrenheit cannot be measured with a ratio scale because 0 degrees F does not represent the complete absence of temperature. The Fahrenheit scale lacks an absolute zero.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Zero
For example, let’s say we conduct an experiment to examine the effects of background music on a short-term memory task. We use three different types of music: pop, rock, and country, and we have a no-music control group. We predict that background music will worsen performance, but we don’t make any specific predictions about music type.

We find that music did negatively impact performance. However, we can’t say for sure which groups performed worse than others without running additional tests to compare the groups to each other. A posteriori analyses such as these are useful in exploratory research, when researchers do not have enough information to make specific predictions ahead of time, but further analysis of results can yield new directions for future studies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=A+Posteriorihttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ruleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychoneuroimmunologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=PsychometricsDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).

The possible diagnoses cover a broad range of physical mental disorders (i.e.traumatic brain injury or schizophrenia), personality disorders (essentially dysfunctional coping styles), psychological disorders (i.e. depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, etc.), developmental disorders, addictions, and a wide range of other conditions. Giving a client a psychological diagnosis is necessary, partly for treatment planning and partly because insurance companies and other clinical funding sources require a "label" for statistical and other purposes.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychological+Diagnosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Patientpsychotherapy where a therapist or counselor assists a client in learning desired or appropriate behaviors through "modeling" (demonstrating the behavior) and then assisting the client in imitating the modeled behavior. For instance, if a client needs to learn how to use a public bus the therapist would take them to the bus stop, show them how to wait for the bus, walk up the steps, pay the driver, find a seat and then get off the bus when they get to the correct stop.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Participant+Modelinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parenting+Practiceshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parental+Investment
See also: Figure and Figure-Ground]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Groundhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genocide
See also: Ground and Figure-Ground]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=FigureFight-or-Flight Response). It causes a release of adrenaline into the body that heightens the senses and provides energy to the muscles in order for the person to react successfully to the situation or event. In our modern times we've all had the experience of being startled by something unexpected and feeling the adrenaline surge that went with it. In more primitive times this fear reaction could make the difference between life and death.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fearhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Explicit+Use+Of+Memory
This might be done by asking the participants to record their current thoughts and emotions in response to a timer (i.e., a signal), or to ask the participant to keep a journal on a regular basis. This way the participant can learn to identify the situations and events that trigger particular thoughts and actions and learn to change their behavior.

For example: Imagine a person is dealing with the problem of overeating as a means of dealing with negative emotions. By keeping a journal and identifying the situations that lead to the negative emotions they can learn to identify and avoid, or counteract, that type of situation and thereby control their desire to overeat.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experience-Sampling+Methodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expectancy+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erogenous+ZonesFreud and Jung and assumes that the human mind and motivations resist being easily understood and that the symbols found in dreams must be properly interpreted in order to gain an understanding of a person's inner mental workings.

See also: Dream Work]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dream+Analysishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dispositional+Variables
For example when a person who had a difficult or traumatic childhood develops symptoms of mental illness as a teenager or adult It is believed that these symptoms may not have developed, or at least been less severe, if the person had had a happier or more benign childhood.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diathesis-Stress+Hypothesis
Adolescents tend to be more emotionally volatile and experience more frequent mood swings as they undergo changes that come with puberty. They also tend to engage in more risky behavior that may cause harm to themselves and others, ranging from experimenting with cigarettes, alcohol, or drugs, to criminal behavior. Though not all adolescents experience Storm and Stress as described by Hall, it is generally accepted that it is more likely to happen during the period of adolescence than at any other time in life.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Storm+And+Stresshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stereopsis
When a researcher conducts a study, the data that she gathers needs to be converted into an appropriate statistic, in order for them to be subject to interpretation. For example, if she was using a statistic called the t-test, she would convert the results into a t-value. This t-value will then be compared to a critical value, that is determined by referring to a table that lists down critical  values for the t-test. The critical value is the cut-off value that will delineate the Critical Region. Any value higher than the critical value is said to fall in the Critical Region.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Critical+Regionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+Adaptation
Interventions happen most often in cases of drug addiction. For example, if a loved one began spending their child's college fund to buy drugs, their loved ones intervene and try to get it to stop. They urge the individual to seek help and offer support during recovery.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interventionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prosopagnosia+%28Face+Blindness%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genome
When individuals of the ingroup evaluate their own group members, they are more forgiving and make more exceptions for failures and fewer exceptions for successes. This error in thought plays a large role in prejudice and other social biases.

See also: Fundamental Attribution Error]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ultimate+Attribution+Error
See also: Outgroup]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ingrouphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ingratiationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Impression+Managementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Impression+Formationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Helper%27s+Highhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peer+Group
The list is organized from the things that produce the least intense fear response (at the top of the list) to the things that produce the most intense fear response (at the bottom).

For example, let's say a solider suffering from PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) is now terrified by guns. Even a picture of a gun can elicit a fear response in the solider. Handling a gun could cause a serious fear response. In this case, the solider could choose looking at pictures of guns as the least intense fear (top of the list) and holding or shooting a gun could be the most intense fear (bottom of the list).

Related: Systematic Desensitization ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hierarchy+Of+Fearshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Standard+Of+Proof
So how does this connect to psychology? The nerves that give sensations to your hands are the same ones that go to your lower arms. Physically, the hand cannot be numb without the lower arm being numb. You might be thinking "what about a pinched nerve?" A pinched nerve would be a physical condition that could explain the numbness. In this case, there's a clear physical cause of the pain.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Glove+Anesthesia
Psychologists believe that this is a way the mind protects itself after the traumatic event. Depersonalization is not considered a disorder unless it becomes frequent enough to disrupt normal life and functioning. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depersonalization
There are two ways a researcher can make a Decision Error. She can either decide that his hypothesis is true when it is actually false, or decide that his hypothesis is false when it is in fact true.

For example, let's say you hypothesize that Psychology majors are poor in Math. In reality, Psychology majors are no better or worse in Math when compared to the general population of university students. But let's say for some reason, when you picked out your sample for your study, you ended up getting a lot of Psychology majors who were taking remedial Math classes. This leads you to conclude that your hypothesis is correct, and that Psychology majors are poor in Math, when in reality, you should have rejected your hypothesis. Thus, you are making a Decision Error.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decision+Errors
An example would be: What is the probability of a job applicant passing a panel interview, given that he has passed the initial interview with HR?  Let's say 25% of all applicants are able to pass both the panel and HR interviews, and 42% pass only the HR interview. The probability of an applicant passing the panel interview given that he has already passed the HR interview, is equal to the probability of successfully passing both interviews (.25), divided by the probability of passing the HR interview (.42), which gives us .60, or 60%. This means that an applicant has a 60% chance of passing the panel interview, once he has passed the initial interview with HR.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditional+Probability
For example, let's say you want to find out whether length of breastfeeding is related to a child's IQ. If you were to do a Statistical Regression, the x-axis would be the length of time a child was breastfed, and the y-axis would represent the child's IQ score. Every participant in the study would be recorded as a dot on a graph, representing the intersection of the X and Y variables. After recording all your data, you will end up with a bunch of dots scattered all over your graph.

What Statistical Regression does is it determines to draw a line that is closest to all of the dots on your graph. This is known as the line of best fit, and it tells you by how much Y changes with every change in X. In this case, given how long a child is breastfed, it enables you to predict what his IQ score would be.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Statistical+Regression
As an example, let's say you needed to get your math homework done. Cognition has to do with things like whether you understand the concepts needed to solve the math problems assigned to you. Affect has to do with whether you like the subject or not. Let's say that you don't fully understand the lesson, and don't like the subject all that much. But, you know that you need to somehow pass the course in order to graduate, which is your ultimate goal. Conation is what will drive you to make the effort to hit the books and go through the math problems even if you dislike the subject. Conation allows you to exercise your will and act upon your thoughts and emotions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conation
For example, a researcher who interviews teenagers for a study might leave out the teenagers’ slang when reporting or analyzing their responses because she didn’t catch the unfamiliar words or didn’t think it was necessary to include, when actually the language may be very important and useful for the study. If observations are not accurate and objective, the study has low descriptive validity. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Descriptive+Validity
For example, your first group could have had scores of 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, and 5 to achieve a mean of 3. But scores of 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, and 4 would also result in the same group mean. When calculating degrees of freedom you must take into account the total number of participants and the number of groups.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Degrees+Of+Freedomhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=A+Priori
An example of a curvilinear relationship would be staff cheerfulness and customer satisfaction. The more cheerful a service staff is, the higher the customer satisfaction, but only up to a certain point. When a service staff is too cheerful, it might be perceived by customers as fake or annoying, bringing down their satisfaction level.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Curvilinear+Relationship
Let’s say someone inherited genes that put them at risk for schizophrenia. According to the diathesis-stress model of schizophrenia, the at-risk person might avoid developing the disease if stress in their life is low. But high levels of stress could trigger onset of the disease. Possible environmental stressors include family conflict, abuse, trauma, problems at school, rejection by peers, and even poor nutrition.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diathesis-Stress+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diathesis
This type of detox is the first step in addiction recovery and is meant to be combined with medication and counseling. Detoxification for general health or nutritional purposes is typically an unsupervised process and may be done with herbal supplements, dietary restrictions, sweating, massage, or other methods. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Detoxification+%28detox%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Cortexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vestibular+Sense
See also: Trichromatic Theory]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trichromatichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Receptive+Fieldhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ion+Channelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Community+Mental+Health+Facilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Community+Living+Facility
See also: Schizophrenia and Delusions]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusional+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delirium+Tremenshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Degenerative+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Arousalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sex+Chromosomeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Serial+Processeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychometric+Function
For example, a parent and child enter into a contingency contract to get the child to finish his homework before dinner time, after which, he earns some TV time. Every time he satisfactorily finishes his homework before dinner time, he gets to watch an hour of TV after dinner. If he fails to finish his homework satisfactorily, then instead of enjoying some TV time, he has to use that time to finish his homework. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contingency+Contracting
For example, someone may think that she is inadequate if she does not get straight A's in school, or she is only acceptable if she fits into a certain dress size.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditions+Of+Worthhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensorineural+Deafness
Let's say you want to find out if taking a vitamin supplement increases mental alertness. And let's say that, in this instance, the vitamin supplement is indeed effective in increasing alertness. Your test would have Statistical Power if it is able to lead you to correctly reject the null hypothesis.

If a test has high Statistical Power, then it will help you to conclude that the vitamin supplement has an effect. If a test lacks Statistical Power, you might end up wrongly concluding that the vitamin supplement is useless in increasing alertness, when in fact it is effective.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Statistical+Power
According to Developmental Psychologist Jean Piaget, children between the ages of 2 and 7 engage in magical thinking because they have not yet developed the ability to think logically. This means that they tend to attribute events that happen around them, as being caused by their own thoughts. For example, a parent gets sick because the child got angry and wished ill of the parent.

Magical thinking may also be a symptom of a mental disorder. For example, a patient who has Obsessive Compulsive Disorder believes that something bad will happen if he doesn't wash his hands ten times.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Magical+Thinking
For example, a study on memory would ask participants to memorize a list of three-letter nonsense words. A test of Mundane Realism would ask: How similar to real-life memory tasks is the activity? Can the findings of such an experiment be applied to real-life memory tasks?]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mundane+Realism
For example, when you are grabbing a cup of coffee, Motor Neuron A (which also happens to be a Mirror Neuron) fires to tell your hand to reach out and grip the handle of the cup. When you watch your friend pick up his own cup of coffee, Motor Neuron A also fires as if you were also picking up his cup of coffee, even if your hand is not moving at all.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mirror+Neurons
For example, imagine a very young boy encountering different breeds of dogs for the first time. When he sees a Labrador retriever and he responds “dog!”, his parents reward him with praise and he learns that the animal is indeed a dog. When the child sees a Shih Tzu and he responds “dog!”, he is also rewarded with praise. The boy responds the same way to both types of dog stimuli, and each response generates the same result. In this way the child learns to call all dog breeds “dogs,” even though they are of different sizes and have different types of fur, etc.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulus+Generalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Concurrent+Validity
Questionnaires may have close-ended questions such as multiple choice or Yes/No items, or open-ended questions such as sentence completion items, or straightforward questions asking about opinions or thoughts of the respondent about a certain topic.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Questionnaire
When you manage your Internal Stressors, it enhances your ability to deal with External Stressors, or things that come from your environment.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+Stressorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=External+Stressor
For example, to look at the relationship between serial killers and child abuse, the investigators will identify convicted serial killers, and find out which of them have a past history of being abused as children.

A major advantage of a Retrospective Study is that it allows the study of rare phenomena without having to use a very large sample size, and without having to spend a long time following the subjects to find out the outcome. If you were to do a Prospective Study on serial killers and child abuse, you would have to recruit an extrermely large sample of abused children and follow them for several years in order to find out which ones turn out to become serial killers. That would be very expensive and time-consuming.

A disadvantage of this kind of study is that it is prone to bias. In this example, it is possible for the researchers to tend to select participants who already have a known history of being abused. Also, the accuracy of the gathered data is only as good as the accuracy of available records.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrospective+Study
Think about all the social and professional circles that you belong to. For each one, how was the group formed? how does your sense of belonging to that group affect your personal identity? how are decisions made and carried out within the group? An understanding of group dynamics is crucial for understanding individuals and how we relate to each other. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+Dynamicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Situational+Variables
For example, if a male asks a female out to the movies, the sexual script suggests that he is expected to pay for both his ticket and his date’s ticket. If he does not, then he is violating the traditional sexual script for a date. If his date subscribes to the traditional version of this script then he might fail to meet her expectations, with the possible consequence that she will not go out with him again. Sexual scripts are based on shared cultural ideals and social norms. They are learned from and reinforced by our family, friends, church, the media, and other people around us. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Scriptshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexism
Let’s say, for example, that you are a fan of classical music. According to self-perception theory, you didn’t decide that you like classical music because you think it’s the best type of music or because listening to it makes you feel good. You decided that you like classical music based on the fact that you listen to it a lot. Thus, we learn about ourselves and form self-judgments the same way we learn about and judge others – by observation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Perception+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+Optimization+With+Compensation
In another form of response bias, participants may choose only the extreme answer choices (the highest and lowest points of a scale, for example) and avoid the midpoint of the scale, or they may stick to the middle and rarely choose the high or low scale points.

Response biases are sometimes due to a participant’s personality, but researchers can reduce the likelihood of response bias by changing the construction of the measurement instrument or by making other improvements to the study design. The social desirability effect can be controlled somewhat by allowing participants to complete the study anonymously and by assuring confidentiality of responses]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Response+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operant+Extinctionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Normative+Investigations
See also: Punishment]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+Punishment
For a baby, self-comforting could include behaviors like thumbsucking or snuggling with a blankie. Some examples of self-comforting behaviors that adults engage in include meditation, going to the spa, taking a walk, or practicing a hobby. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self+Comforting
One example of a situation that requires self regulation is when you go on a diet with a goal of losing X number of pounds. In order to be successful, you must stick to a diet and exercise plan, at least until you reach your target weight. This means being able to say no to certain foods that are not part of your meal plan, getting yourself to eat certain food that you might not like very much, being able to motivate yourself to get up and do your daily workout, and other things that are needed to achieve your goal. In this case, good self-regulation may spell the difference between achieving your ideal weight and being healthy, or spiralling out of control into obesity and ill health.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self+Regulation
For example, whenever you come home from work, the first thing you do is feed your dog. As a result, your dog gets excited as soon as he hears your car pulling up at the driveway, barking and running to the door. Eventually, he begins to get excited as soon as any family member arrives in their car, thinking that he will get fed as well. Everytime he hears any car pull up at the driveway, he starts barking and running to the door. That is Stimulus Generalization. But if none of the other family members ever feed the dog as soon as they arrive home, your dog eventually learns that it is only the sound of your car pulling up at the driveway that's worth getting excited about. That is Stimulus Discrimination, because he learns to distinguish only the specific sound that means food is coming, and learns to ignore all other car sounds as not relevant to his getting fed.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulus+Discriminationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thanatology
One example of how the prefrontal cortex operates is when we come up with ""Aha!"" moments. Sometimes when we try to solve a particularly difficult problem, such as figuring out a puzzle, we reach a dead end and need to set it aside for a little while. As we go about our day doing other things, it would seem as if we had forgotten about the puzzle. In reality, the prefrontal cortex continues to work on it behind the scenes, pulling information from the analytical left side of the brain and integrating it with relevant data from the more intuitive and emotional right side of the brain. At some point, a lightbulb goes off and all of a sudden, we have a solution. That is the end-product of what the Prefrontal Cortex has been doing all along.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prefrontal+Cortex
Each time your child goes to the pediatrician to get a shot, the doctor presses the buzzer before the shot. Now, every time your child hears the buzzer, she cries.

The first time she rang the buzzer to call the assistant, your child had no relevant response. The assistant came in and the pediatrician proceeded to give the shot, which caused your child to cry. After several visits where the doctor would always buzz to call her assistant and then administers the shot, your child began to associate the ringing of the buzzer with the shot. Now, as soon as the doctor rings the buzzer, your toddler starts to cry. The previously neutral stimulus of the buzzer has become what is called a conditioned stimulus, triggering a conditioned response (crying).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neutral+Stimulus
For example, when you go shopping, you are often attended to by a certain lady at the checkout counter. Each time she rings up your purchase, you exchange greetings and engage in small talk. Even from afar, you always recognize her in her uniform at her assigned counter. But when you run into her at a coffee shop in your neighborhood, you are unable to recognize her because she is out of her uniform, in a different setting, and is a customer at the shop instead of behind a counter. In this case, none of the retrieval cues that go along with your memory of the checkout lady are present, and this makes you unable to recognize her (She probably doesn't recognize you either!).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrieval+CueFailure
For example, when someone is introduced to us at a party, we don't only store the name and appearance of the new acquaintance in our memory. We also include external cues about the situtation like what kind of party it was, who made the introduction, what cocktails were served, or what music was playing. We also include internal cues like what mood you were in at the time, or what you thought of the person being introduced. When we try to recall the person, having one or more of these cues present will help us remember better. So when you meet the person again, it would be easier to remember them if you bumped into them at another party, or you saw them with the same person who introduced you, or you were in the same mood as when you first met them.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrieval+Cue
This method of persuasion works best when the facts presented are strong, the topic is relevant to the listener, and the audience is motivated to listen. Successful use of the Central Route to Persuasion results in long-lasting and enduring attitude change in the listener.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Central+Route+Processinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relearning
A confabulation may involve a distortion of temporal context, where the memory is accurate, but misplaced in time. For example, someone may give a very detailed account of what they did on Christmas Day 2010, including who was present at the family gathering, what was served at the dinner table, and the iPhone 5 they received as a gift. Of course, this is impossible, since the phone was only released in 2012.

Another type of confabulation involves inaccuracies in the actual content of the memory. For example, remembering that their father was the one who carved the turkey, when he had already passed away years before. "]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confabulationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Norepinephrinehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stress+Moderator+Variableshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulus-Driven+Capturehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stigmahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stereotype+Threathttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatosensory+Cortexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Support
Social development can be effected by a child’s personality, the opportunities they have for social interaction, behaviors learned from parents, and developmental disorders. For example, a child who has a short temper and who witnesses violence in the home may have trouble learning how to play well with other kids.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Developmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychological+Assessment
Power is the probability that a statistically significant effect can be found when it actually exists. Without adequate power you might commit a Type II error, meaning that you fail to reject the null hypothesis when it is false. The general consensus is that power should be 0.8 or greater; if it is less than 0.8 then the same size is too small. The exact formula for a power test depends on what type of analysis you are running (such as a t-test), but power formulas take into account the desired alpha or significance level, the effect size or expected difference you wish to detect, and known variation in the population.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Power+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Measures+Of+Variabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Perceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Categorizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Handicapping
For example, in college we may have enjoyed meeting and hanging out with a wide range of people, but as we get older we are more likely to focus on the interactions that are the most familiar and rewarding for us. This is because older adults have less and energy to devote to socializing and they want their interactions to be as positive as possible. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+Social+Interaction+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reversal+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relaxation+Responsehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ritual+Healing
For example, if we asked students to report how many hours per week they used Facebook, students may under-report the time due to embarrassment or not realizing how much time they spend on the site. However, independent observation of Facebook use would be difficult and costly to implement.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Report+Measureshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Physiologyaction potential (a process known as transduction). For example, taste buds are receptors on the tongue that are activated by chemical properties in food and drinks; taste receptors convert these properties into signals that our brain interprets as a sweet, salty, sour, or bitter taste. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Receptorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shamanismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shyness
Statistical difference should not be confused with the size of the difference between the groups. One group may have a mean score of 95 while another has a mean score of 98, and this result may be statistically significant but not a very large or meaningful effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Significant+Differencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Phobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Learning+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Specific+Phobias
For example, if you have a cold and don’t do anything to treat it, it will usually get better in a few days. But if you eat chicken soup during that time, you may conclude that the chicken soup cured you, when really your body just recovered naturally. However, there are instances of patients with fatal diseases such as cancer who suddenly went into remission for unknown reasons.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spontaneous-Remission+Effect
The disadvantage of using this method is that your sample may be biased in some way. You could end up with a sample of people who had the financial resources to seek out treatment for their condition, or who were particularly attracted to the treatment methods of the physician you contacted.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Purposive+Samplinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychoanalysthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proximal+StimulusOlfaction). Located at the tip of the olfactory lobe, the bulb processes information about odors after receiving sensory input from the nose.

So if there is a freshly popped bag of popcorn anywhere near you, your nose will likely pick up the scent and transmit the signals to your olfactory bulb, which decodes the odor information and communicates with other brain areas to identify and respond to the smell.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Olfactory+Bulbhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Norm+Crystallization+
These individuals work hard to meet their goals and tend to take on tasks that are moderately difficult to accomplish. If they choose a goal that is too easy, the achievement is not very rewarding, and if they chose something that is too difficult, success may not be obtainable. Say someone with a high n Ach is just beginning to set high standards for themselves in fitness. They may aim to run a 5k (3-mile) race, but they would shy away from a longer race until they have become a more experienced runner, so they aren’t setting themselves up for failure. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Need+For+Achievement+%28n+Ach%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Metamemorymean tells us the average value or score; the median tells us the midpoint in the range of values; and the mode tells us the most common value in the data set.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Measures+Of+Central+Tendency
According to guided search theory, we first process multiple basic features such as color, shape, and motion simultaneously across a large field. We then look for one specific element or combination of basic features at a time in a smaller area of the visual field. So we might first scan the sporting event crowd for the color and pattern of our friend's shirt and then focus on the most promising spots in the crowd to find his face. Thus, information from the early stage of processing is used to guide attention in the later stage and make our visual search more efficient.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Guided+Search
Most evolutionary scholars today do not believe this theory and argue that evolution operates without goals or any forces driving it in a certain direction. According to the theory of natural selection, characteristics or abilities that allow individuals to survive and reproduce in their current environment are more likely to be passed on, but these adaptations are not designed and are not necessarily improvements over previous traits.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Goal-Directed+Selectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ganglion+Cellshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Distal+Stimulus
Dark adaptation is made possible by the dilation of our pupils and changes in the rods and cones of our retinas. Rods detect form and motion, and cones detect color. So in darkness, our rods kick into high gear while the cones take a backseat.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dark+Adaptationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Timbrehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phantom+Limb+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypostresshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Saliencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Meditation
So if a class is learning about nutrition, for example, a teacher might assemble groups for each basic nutrient (carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber) and tell each group to study how that nutrient functions in the body, the dietary recommendations for it, and so on. Then a representative from each of expert group will form a jigsaw group to share what they learned with their classmates. This way, students rely on each other to learn the material, and they gain confidence and respect from their peers. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Jigsaw+Classroomhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Horizontal+Cells
The heritability estimate for major depression is .50, which means that half of the variation seen in major depression across a population is due to genes (biologically inherited) and half is due to the environment (school, work, home life, etc.). In other words, genes and environment contribute equally to this disorder.

Related: Heritability]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heritability+Estimates
The Gestalt school of psychology is perhaps best known for developing principles of visual perception that describe how we organize visual parts into a whole, for example how we mentally separate the foreground and background of an image.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gestalt+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimental+Methods
(1) do other people behave this way?
(2) does the person always behave this way under similar circumstances? and
(3) does the person ever behave this way in different situations?

Let’s say we have a friend who is failing a class. If she usually struggles in school with most subjects and has a hard time in classes that are easy for others, we will probably conclude that she is a poor student. But if she is failing a class that many others are failing as well, and she is doing well in her other courses, we will conclude that she is a good student and there is something wrong with this particular class (perhaps she has a bad instructor).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Covariation+Principlehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychodynamic+Personality+Theorieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Punisherhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychic+Determinism
A simple example of this might be realizing that you don’t have the right clothes for a social event, identifying what you need and where to go to buy the appropriate clothes and then buying those clothes and bringing them home. In between these stages you also have to take into consideration other associated concerns like "what can I afford? What stores carry what I want to buy?" and then "how do I find the time to shop for what I'm looking for?"]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Problem+Spacehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Problem+Solvinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Photoreceptorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personal+Unconscioushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Orientation+Constancyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moralityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Geneticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equity+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elaboration+Likelihood+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decision+MakingTrue Experimental Designs because there is no control condition, nothing is manipulated, and there are many differences between the groups other than the independent variable(s).

However, correlational studies are often easier to conduct than experiments and can be used when conducting a controlled experiment is impossible. For example, if we wanted to examine the relationship between grade point average and number of alcoholic drinks per week, we cannot ethically assign participants to binge-drinking conditions. We can only observe drinking behavior in a real-world setting or rely on participants’ self-report.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Correlational+MethodsMania]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Manic+Episodehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Judgementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Instrumental+Aggressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Implicit+Use+Of+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusory+Contourshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypnotizabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hyperstresshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Human+Behavior+Geneticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hozhohttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary+Enciphalitishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Waterfall+Effect
This is the most famous symptom of tetanus, which starts with the nickname of 'lockjaw' because the muscle in the face are spasming and the mouth cannot open properly.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=GABA+Receptorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Yerkishhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Understandinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Valuing+ProcessCatatonic Schizophrenia, but is also included in the diagnosis of mood disorder with catatonia.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Waxy+Flexibility
Once he had learned the entire list, Ebbinghaus decided to see how many days it took him to forget the entire list if he did not study. He discovered that he forgot syllables in the middle of the list more quickly than the first or most recent syllables. This he called the forgetting curve. This phenomenon of rembering the first items on his list became known as the primacy effect: things that are studied for longer periods of time stick around longer. The phenomenon of remembering the most recent items on his list became known as the recency effect: things that were freshest in his memory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Herman+Ebbinghaushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zener+Cardshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ulcerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Test+Re-Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unspecified+Encephalitis
Generally in our everyday experiences, dogs are not green, but based on the first two statements alone, the third statement is valid. The conclusion can also be inconclusive; for example: (a) Cats like milk. (b) Joe is a hamster. (c)Joe does not like milk. The first two statements have no common elements, and therefore no conclusion can validly be drawn.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Syllogism
Diana Baumrind developed the three-type theory of parenting associated with different aspects of the child's social behavior. Authoritarian parents would ground a child for staying outside alone after dark and say that it's just the rule instead of explaining the hazards of the situation (like an authoritative parent would). A neglectful parent would just call the child in for dinner and ignore the circumstances.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Authoritarian+Parentinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Illusion
The zone has a lower limit: things that are difficult but possible for a child to learn alone, and an upper limit: things that a child cannot yet learn, even with assistance from an adult. For a toddler, an example of the lower limit might be putting shaped pegs into similarly shaped holes. An example of the upper limit might be adding and subracting two-digit numbers.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zone+Of+Proximal+Developmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zeitgebershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Voyeurismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vascular+Accidenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+Stereotypehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dream+Work
Let’s say two friends agree to spend time together - either on a date or just “hanging out”; if one friend coerces the other into having sex, or weakens their resistance to sexual advances with drugs or alcohol, they are committing date rape.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Date+Rapehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cutaneous+Senseshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contextual+Distinctiveness
These styles can range from from highly authoritarian (rigid, "my way or the highway") to an "anything goes" attitude. As an example, we all remember having friends while we were growing up , and seeing how each family's household worked differently from our own, and from each other. This is one of the results of differences in parenting styles.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parenting+Styleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Health+PromotionMagnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans and is useful for detecting changes in activation of different centers of the brain.This technique can be used to identify behavioral abnormalities that exist because of unusual activation of area of the brain.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Functional+MRI+%28fMRI%29
Related: Emotional Intelligence]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Quotient+%28EQ%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encoding+Specificitymultiple personality disorder), is a controversial diagnosis of a psychological disorder that manifests itself in the presence of two or more alternate personalities in the same body that may or may not be aware of each other's existence. It is believed to be the result of severe childhood trauma. Several popular books and movies (The 3 Faces of Eve and Sybil, amongst others) have been based on this diagnosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dissociative+Identity+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dissociative+Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dichotic+Listeninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Criterion+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Controlled+Processeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Consensual+Validationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioned+Reinforcershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autobiographical+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Foundational+Theorieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Floodinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fight+or+Flighthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Excitatory+Inputshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Etiologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Environmental+Variables
Imagine trying to do a math problem. You need to store the numbers temporarily while you work with them to solve the problem. Keeping the information temporarily and processing it at the same time is working memory. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Working+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deductive+Reasoninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decision+Aversionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Daytime+Sleepinesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Natural+Selection
Neuromodulators are not quickly reabsorbed and remain active in the cerebrospinal fluid (fluid that surrounds and infuses the brain) for a considerable length of time thereby having long-term effects on mood and other physical and mental states.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuromodulatorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuropathic+Painhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurosciencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organismic+Variableshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overregularizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parallel+Formshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychobiographyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reciprocal+Altruismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reconstructive+Memory
See also: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Residual+Stress+Patternhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Resting+Potential
For instance, a child that grows up in a loving home and a safe environment will learn a “scheme” that views the world as a benign place, where a child that grows up in a violent and unpredictable home will grow up viewing the world as a dangerous place.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schemehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nociceptive+Pain
Non-REM sleep contains light stages of sleep (stage 1), to full sleep (Stage 2), and deep or slow wave sleep (stages 3 and 4).

]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Non-REM+Sleep+%28NREM%29
See also: Pastoral Counselor]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pastoral+Counselorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceived+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pheromoneshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Physical+Developmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Physiological+Dependencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Placebo+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Placebo+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Possible+Selveshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preattentive+Processinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preconscious+Memorieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contact+Comforthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Complementary+Colors
See also: Cognitive Psychology]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Sciencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Appraisalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Child-Directed+Speechhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Control+Procedureshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Copinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contingency+Managementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Context+of+Justificationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Context+of+Discoveryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contact+Hypothesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Consistency+Paradox+%28Personality+Paradox%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Comorbidity
See also: Cognitive Development Theory]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Development
For instance, driving in heavy traffic requires a combination of physical readiness to react while constantly observing the surrounding traffic flow.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Appraisal+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Social+Workerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Ecologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biomedical+Therapieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biological+Constraints+On+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Client-Centered+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chronological+Age]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chronic+Stress
See also: Cerebellum]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebral+Hemisphereshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brightnesseating disorders are at least partially the result of negative body image. Unfortunately, many people have skewed or unrealistic body image. They look in the mirror and may see something very different than the real reflection - for example, someone thin may see someone with excess body fat, even though none exists.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Body+Imagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bipolar+Cells
These hemispheres are connected to each other through a band of nervous tissue referred to called the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere is broken down further into four lobes.

All of the parts work together and share responsibility for the regulation of the higher cognitive and emotional functions of the brain such as perception, motor functions, and even determining intelligence.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebrumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Datahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Confirmationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basic+Levelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditory+Nervehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditory+Cortexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Audience+Designhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavior+Analysis
For example, a car dealer might suggest a price for a car and the customer will try to negotiate down from that price, even if the price suggested is more than the Blue Book Value.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anchoring+Heuristichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=All-or-None+Lawindividuals of an age group. While most often used to describe negative attitudes against older or elderly people it can also be used to mean a distinct prejudice against any age group.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ageismevent. It causes a sudden discharge of adrenaline into the body that activates that sympathetic nervous system creating a increase in heart and breathing rates and constricting blood vessels in preparation for the “fight or flight response.”]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+Stressperceptions, decision-making, etc. Based on the theories of Carl Jung, it was designed to measure naturally occurring differences that exist within the human population as a means of helping people to identify their most comfortable work environments and assignments.

This inventory assumes that everyone has specific preferences for how they organize their lives in relations to their experiences, and how those underlie their values, needs, interests and motivations. At present, this test is the most widely used personality inventory in existence.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Myers-Briggs+Assessment
For example, an animal can be taught to push a lever to receive a bite of food as a reward. When the animal receives a treat for its behavior, it becomes more willing to continue to perform the behavior. In this example, you can see the effect the reward has the animal's behavior.


]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Law+of+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Archetypehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anticipatory+Copinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Animal+Cognition
As adults we sometimes experience reactions to things and situations that are based on childhood experiences. Once we explore those reactions and can remember why and how that reaction started we can work towards changing our responses to that previously subconscious stimulus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Analytic+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amacrine+Cells
See also: HIV]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=AIDShttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sampling+Errorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Normal+Distribution
Suprefact may be taken by injection or by nasal spray. It causes suppression of the ovarian response. It also decreases the chance of spontaneous ovulation.

Suprefact has been known to contribute to the treatment of prostrate cancer in men.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Suprefacthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotional+Intelligence

Those with good sleep hygiene follow consistent routines and have behaviors that allow them to fall asleep, stay asleep, and get a full (restful) night of sleep. Those with poor sleep hygiene often have erratic sleep schedules, have difficulty falling asleep, often wake during the night and are unable (or have trouble) going back to sleep.


Good sleep hygiene is really important because it helps prevent sleep disorders, and promotes healthy sleep and daytime alertness. Good sleep hygiene includes having a consistent routine, going to bed at the same time each night, not reading or watching tv in bed, only going to bed when tired (associating the bed with sleep), and so on.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sleep+Hygienehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Order+EffectMary Ainsworth to explore childhood attachments patterns. The procedure begins with the child and his mother in a room where the child is allowed to play and explore alone. A stranger enters the room, talks to the mother, and approaches the child while the mother leaves the room.

After a short period, the mother comes back and reunites with the child. The mother and the stranger leaves, and the child is left to play alone. The stranger then comes back and attempts to interact with the child. The mother returns for a second reunion as the stranger leaves.

Throughout the procedure, the child is observed on four aspects: play behavior, reactions to departure and to the mother's return, and behavior when the stranger is around. Ainsworth categorized the nature of the children's attachment into three groups based on their behaviors.

A child is said to have a Secure Attachment when he is able to freely explore when the mother is around, interacts with the stranger when the mother is present but not when she is absent, shows distress when the mother leaves, and is happy to see the mother return.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Strange+SituationMary Ainsworth. During The Strange Situation Test a child with this type of insecure attachment shows some pretty extreme behaviors such as crying during separation, falling to the floor when around mom, and even rocking or hitting themselves.

Many psychologists believe that the mothers of children with this type of insecure attachment may have suffered some type of traumatic loss in their lives that resulted in severe depression. The thought being that there is a connection between mom having severe depression and the child developing this type of insecure attachment.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disorganized%2FDisoriented+AttachmentMary Ainsworth. During The Strange Situation Test a child with this type of insecure attachment tends to ignore the caregiver, sometimes almost completely. In addition, the child may have little or no interest in exploring the area or having any interaction with mom.

Many psychologists believe that this type of insecure attachment comes from mom being disengaged and emotionally detached from the child.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxious-Avoidant+Insecure+AttachmentMary Ainsworth. According to Ainsworth, a child with Anxious-Resistant Insecure Attachment is anxious about exploring its surroundings, even when the mother is present.

When the mother is not present, the child shows quite a bit more anxiety about exploration and may even show strong signs of distress (nervous, crying, etc.). When mom returns, the child may be ambivalent about having contact and may even show signs of anger toward her.

Many psychologists believe this type of insecure attachment comes from the mother being engaged with the child only on her own terms and not meeting the needs of the child. In other words, mom gives attention to the child once her own needs are met.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxious-Resistant+Insecure+Attachment
Let's say you are a marketing student who works part-time as a gym instructor. Your class project is to conduct market research to find out whether people preferred their energy drink in a can or in a plastic bottle. You take your gym class and have them try out both kinds of packaging to determine which one they liked better. Your gym class is but a small portion of the entire energy-drinking population, but you select them for your study because it is convenient for you to do so.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Convenience+Sampling
Haphazard sampling gives little guarantee that your sample will be representative of the entire population. If you were to use this method to conduct a survey to find out who people will vote for president, the results you get may not predict the actual outcome of the election. This is because you would probably only be able to interview people who were probably white-collar workers on their way to work, or those who were not in such a big hurry to get to where they're going, or those who lived or worked near the area where you conducted your survey.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Haphazard+Sampling
For example, you want to conduct a survey of salespeople for a nationwide retail chain with stores all over the country. You could randomly select states, randomly select counties in each state, randomly select stores in each county, and randomly select salespeople in those stores.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multistage+Sampling
Let's say you want to conduct a study involving nurses in the United States. Instead of randomly selecting 10% of the nurses in every hospital in the country, you could randomly select 10% of the hospitals and take all of the nurses in those hospitals to be part of your sample.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cluster+Sampling
For example, imagine you want to create a council of 20 employees that will meet and recommend possible changes to the employee handbook. Let's say 40% of your employees are in Sales and Marketing, 30% in Customer Service, 20% of your employees are in IT, and 10% in Finance. You will randomly select 8 people from Sales and Marketing, 6 from Customer Service, 4 from IT, and 2 from Finance. As you can see, each number you pick is proportionate to the overall percentage of people in each category (e.g., 40% = 8 people).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proportionate+Sampling
For example, you want to find out whether workers who did a lot of overtime work had higher performance scores. If you had existing data suggesting that workers who had children were less likely to work overtime than those who did not have children, you would divide the employee population into two groups: parents and non-parents. You would then randomly select an equal number of people from each subgroup.

In this case, conducting a stratified random sampling assures that you will be able to get sufficient data about each subgroup to make a meaningful analysis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stratified+Random+Sampling
Let's say you work at a company with 5,000 employees and you want to conduct a company-wide employee survey. Using Systematic Sampling you could make a list of all employees by arranging all their employee numbers in ascending order. You would then pick a random number, say the 10th name on your list, from which to take every 10th name to participate in your survey. In this case, your sample size will be composed of employee number 10, 20, 30, 40, and so on.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Systematic+SamplingNonprobability Sampling where participants are selected based on naturally occurring groups.

For example, let's say you want to study sharing behavior of preschool children. Instead of taking a random sample of preschool-aged children, you decide to visit your local preschool and select a class of preschoolers as your sample.

Opportunity Sampling is a popular technique, especially among psychology students who may not have the time or money to select a truly random sample. The downside of this method is that you may end up with biased results. In the example given, the sharing behavior of preschoolers in your area may not be representative of the behavior of all preschoolers due to environmental, cultural, or socio-economic factors.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Opportunity+Sampling
Ideally, probability sampling methods are used, where participants are randomly selected and every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. When it is impossible or impractical to use probability sampling, researchers use non-probability sampling techniques, where participants are selected deliberately, by convenience, or haphazardly.

Non-probability sampling is commonly used in studies where the trait or behavior being investigated occurs so rarely in the general population that it becomes impractical to use a random selection process.

For example, if you wanted to study savant syndrome, a condition where individuals with developmental disorders exhibit remarkable ability in specific areas like the autistic character in the movie Rain Man, who was a genius at calculations. It would be very difficult and expensive to go around the world and randomly select subjects from the small population of savants. In this case, the best route to take would be to contact as many savants as you could find in your state and neighboring areas.

The advantage of using non-probability sampling is it saves time and cost, while allowing you to closely investigate the syndrome. The disadvantage is that you will not be able to make broad generalizations about the entire population of people with the condition.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nonprobability+Sampling
For example, I am a magazine publisher and I want to conduct a survey that will determine which sections of my publication are most liked or disliked by my subscribers. Let's say I have 1,000 subscribers and I decide to survey 100 of my readers. If I were to use probability sampling, I could assign a number to each subscriber and then use a random number generator to identify which ones I will include in my survey. This way, every reader has an equal chance of being selected to participate.

When done properly, Probability Sampling ensures that the sample has a similar composition and profile as that of the entire population, and that the results you get will be similar if you had surveyed every member of the population.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Probability+SamplingErik Erikson (1902 - 1994), a developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst. There are 8 stages spanning birth to old age. Each of the eight stages is marked by a conflict which must be successfully resolved in order to attain a favorable outcome, which he called "virtues."

The first stage of development (from birth to 18 months) is Trust vs. Mistrust. At this stage, the child learns to trust that the world is a safe place and that he can rely on his caregivers to provide for his needs, or to mistrust the world because his needs are not met. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Hope.

The second stage (18 months to 3 years) is Autonomy vs. Shame. As the child learns to walk and begins to explore his environment, he learns autonomy as he develops more control over his bodily functions and his surroundings, or shame and doubt over his ability. If successfully resolved, the child develops the virtue of Will.

The third stage (3 to 5 years) is Initiative vs. Guilt. He learns initiative as he begins to do things for himself, or guilt over making his own choices. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Purpose.

The fourth stage (6 to 12 years) is the conflict of Industry vs. Inferiority. As the child goes to school, he begins to compare himself with others and develops a sense of industry as he accomplishes new things, or a feeling of inferiority if he considers himself inadequate as compared to others. If successfully resolved, the child learns the virtue of Competence.

The fifth stage (12 to 18 years) corresponds to adolescence, when the child struggles between Identity vs. Role Confusion. The adolescent tries to develop his own sense of identity, but may experience role confusion as he tries to reconcile his own desires with that of others around him. Successful resolution enables the virtue of Fidelity.

The sixth stage (18 to 35 years) corresponds to young adulthood. The significant conflict that must be dealt with during this period is Intimacy vs. Isolation as the individual attempts to settle down and start a family. If successfully resolved, he learns Love.

The seventh stage (35 to 55 or 65) is that of the conflict between Generativity vs. Stagnation. This corresponds to the midlife crisis, when the adult assess his contributions to society, or becomes self-absorbed and stagnates. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Care.

The last stage (65 onwards) is the conflict of Integrity vs. Despair, corresponding to late adulthood, when individuals look back at their accomplishments in life. If successfully resolved, the individual gains Wisdom.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychosocial+Stages+of+Development
However, Erikson is most remembered for the stages of development, so let's explore those in more detail. Each of the eight stages is marked by a conflict which must be successfully resolved in order to attain a favorable outcome, which he called "virtues."

The first stage of development (from birth to 18 months) is Trust vs. Mistrust. At this stage, the child learns to trust that the world is a safe place and that he can rely on his caregivers to provide for his needs, or to mistrust the world because his needs are not met. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Hope.

The second stage (18 months to 3 years) is Autonomy vs. Shame. As the child learns to walk and begins to explore his environment, he learns autonomy as he develops more control over his bodily functions and his surroundings, or shame and doubt over his ability. If successfully resolved, the child develops the virtue of Will.

The third stage (3 to 5 years) is Initiative vs. Guilt. He learns initiative as he begins to do things for himself, or guilt over making his own choices. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Purpose.

The fourth stage (6 to 12 years) is the conflict of Industry vs. Inferiority. As the child goes to school, he begins to compare himself with others and develops a sense of industry as he accomplishes new things, or a feeling of inferiority if he considers himself inadequate as compared to others. If successfully resolved, the child learns the virtue of Competence.

The fifth stage (12 to 18 years) corresponds to adolescence, when the child struggles between Identity vs. Role Confusion. The adolescent tries to develop his own sense of identity, but may experience role confusion as he tries to reconcile his own desires with that of others around him. Successful resolution enables the virtue of Fidelity.

The sixth stage (18 to 35 years) corresponds to young adulthood. The significant conflict that must be dealt with during this period is Intimacy vs. Isolation as the individual attempts to settle down and start a family. If successfully resolved, he learns Love.

The seventh stage (35 to 55 or 65) is that of the conflict between Generativity vs. Stagnation. This corresponds to the midlife crisis, when the adult assess his contributions to society, or becomes self-absorbed and stagnates. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Care.

The last stage (65 onwards) is the conflict of Integrity vs. Despair, corresponding to late adulthood, when individuals look back at their accomplishments in life. If successfully resolved, the individual gains Wisdom.

Erikson's theory has contributed significantly to teaching and child-rearing practices, while providing psychotherapists with a roadmap as to what could be the significant conflict that needs to be resolved by the patient.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Erik+Erikson
In order to explore Attachment patterns, Ainsworth devised an experimental procedure called "A Strange Situation." The procedure begins with the child and his mother in a room where the child is allowed to play and explore alone. A stranger enters the room, talks to the mother, and approaches the child while the mother leaves the room. After a short period, the mother comes back and reunites with the child. The mother and the stranger leaves, and the child is left to play alone. The stranger then comes back and attempts to interact with the child. The mother returns for a second reunion as the stranger leaves.

Throughout the procedure, the child is observed on four aspects: play behavior, reactions to departure and to the mother's return, and behavior when the stranger is around. Ainsworth categorized the nature of the children's attachment into three groups based on their behaviors.

A child is said to have a Secure Attachment when he is able to freely explore when the mother is around, interacts with the stranger when the mother is present but not when she is absent, shows distress when the mother leaves, and is happy to see the mother return.

Children may also exhibit signs of having Insecure Attachment. A child who has an Anxious-Resistant Insecure Attachment is anxious to explore and is wary of the stranger even when the mother is present, is extremely distressed when the mother leaves, but is ambivalent when the mother returns. He will stay close to the mother upon her return, but will show resentment by resisting the mother's attention and pushing her away. A child with an Anxious-Avoidant Insecure Attachment will avoid or ignore the mother and show little emotion when his mother leaves and upon her return. He will avoid his mother when she attempts to approach him, and does not cling to her when picked up. He does not explore much, whether the mother is present or not, and reacts similarly to the stranger as he does to his mother.

Ainsworth believed that the kind of attachment pattern exhibited by the child is reflective of the quality of care that he receives. Children whose caregiver is appropriately responsive and consistently provides for their needs will develop a Secure Attachment, while those whose caregivers are unresponsive or inconsistent will develop an Insecure Attachment.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mary+Ainsworth
Just like a computer, the human mind takes in information, organizes and stores it to be retrieved at a later time. Just as the computer has an input device, a processing unit, a storage unit, and an output device, so does the human mind have equivalent structures.

In a computer, information is entered by means of input devices like a keyboard or scanner. In the human mind, the input device is called the Sensory Register, composed of sensory organs like the eyes and the ears through which we receive information about our surroundings.

As information is received by a computer, it is processed in the Central Processing Unit, which is equivalent to the Working Memory or Short-Term Memory. In the human mind, this is where information is temporarily held so that it may be used, discarded, or transferred into long-term memory.

In a computer, information is stored in a hard disk, which is equivalent to the long-term memory. This is where we keep information that is not currently being used. Information stored in the Long-Term Memory may be kept for an indefinite period of time.

When a computer processes information, it displays the results by means of an output device like a computer screen or a printout. In humans, the result of information processing is exhibited through behavior or actions - a facial expression, a reply to a question, or body movement.

The Information Processing Model is often used by educators and trainers to guide their teaching methodologies.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Information+Processing+ModelBehaviorism, which emphasizes objective and observable data such as people's behavior and reactions, as opposed to internal process that cannot be observed like mental states, or thought processes.

Watson outlined that major features of Behaviorism in an article entitled "Psychology As The Behaviorist Views It," often referred to as the Behaviorist Manifesto.

Watson's most famous and controversial experiment is known as the Little Albert Experiment. Little Albert was an 11-month boy who was trained to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud sound. In time, the child began to cry and show signs of distress upon seeing the white rat even without the accompanying sound. This fear was generalized to other furry objects like a rabbit, a dog, and a Santa Claus mask. You can learn more about it on our Learning and Behavior page.

Watson is credited for setting the stage for the rise of Behaviorism, which dominated the field of psychology until the 1950's.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=John+WatsonSocial Psychology. He was a pioneer in the study of group dynamics, the study of how groups interact and the processes that take place within groups. He was also one of the first people to study Organizational Development, which focuses on finding ways to increase an organization's effectiveness.

Lewin formulated the Field Theory, which states that behavior is determined by the totality of the situation in which an individual finds himself. He came up with a formula called Lewin's Equation to illustrate the idea that Behavior is a function of the Person and his Environment (expressed as B=f(P,E).

He also came up with a framework to study the different forces that make up the totality of the situation, and called this Force Field Analysis. Lewin believed that different forces that influence a situation may help or hinder the attainment of a goal. For example, your decision to take up a course of study may be influenced by your own interests and abilities, your parents' wishes, your financial capability, your friends' opinions, and other factors.

Lewin is also credited for coining the term "Action Research," which refers to a spiral of steps that guide problem solving in an organizational or social setting. It is basically composed of a series of data gathering, planning, implementation of action, and evaluation, followed by another round of planning, implementing, and evaluation. The process is continued until the objective is met.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kurt+LewinSigmund Freud's view of women, and countered his idea of penis envy, which refers to a girl's reaction upon realizing that she is different from boys, with her own idea of womb envy.

According to Horney, both men and women have a need to feel productive. Women are able to satisfy this need in two ways: by being a productive member of society through work, and interiorly by bearing children and giving birth. On the other hand, men can only accomplish this need through external ways, and so they compensate for their inability to bear children by focusing on achievements in their career. Horney's work on feminine psychology was useful in promoting equality between the genders.

Horney also developed a theory of neuroses, which she defined as a counterproductive manner of dealing with relationships. She identified three categories of neurotic needs. The need for compliance refers to a tendency to move towards people, manifested by a need to seek approval from others. The need for aggression refers to a tendency to go against people by being selfish, bossy, or demanding. The need for detachment, or a tendency to move away from people by insisting on one's self-sufficiency and insistence on perfection.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Karen+HorneyAdolescence. His work influenced adolescent themes in psychology, popular culture, and education.

Hall coined the term "storm and stress" to describe the period of adolescence. This period is characterized by a teenager's conflict with parents, mood disruptions, and engagement in risky behavior. Although the concept of storm and stress is not accepted as a universal phenomenon in adolescents, psychologists recognize that this phenomenon is most likely to take place during adolescence.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=G.+Stanley+Halltraits or dispositions into three levels.

A Cardinal Trait is a trait that defines and dominates one's personality and behavior. For example, Oprah Winfrey's cardinal trait could be sociability. She is sometimes called the "queen of talk" because of her extraordinary ability to talk to different kinds of people.

Central Traits refer to general characteristics that are present to some degree in almost everyone. Examples of central traits could be kindness, honesty, or friendliness. Secondary Traits are characteristics that surface only in certain situations. Some examples could be shyness, irritability, or anxiety.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gordon+Allport
In his surrogate mother experiment, Harlow demonstrated the importance of contact comfort. Baby rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers and given two surrogate mothers - one made out of wire, and another made of terry cloth. He found that the baby monkeys preferred to cling to the terry cloth surrogate even when food was provided by the wire surrogate.

In his social isolation experiments, he again separated baby rhesus monkeys from their mothers and subjected them to partial or total isolation of varying duration. He found that those who experienced partial isolation exhibited abnormal behaviors such as blank staring, going in circles, and self mutilation. Those who experienced total isolation exhibited severe psychological disturbance, and experienced emotional shock upon being released from isolation. He also found that subsequent attempts to socialize monkeys who were isolated were only partially successful.

Harlow's work revealed the importance of contact comfort and social interaction to healthy development, and influenced child-rearing practices, particularly in orphanages and other institutions that provided care to children.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Harry+HarlowOperant Conditioning, which uses reinforcers or consequences to change behavior.

According to this theory, the rate at which a certain behavior occurs is determined not by what precedes it, but by the consequence that follows it. For example, when a child puts away his toys, he gets praised by his parent. This positive consequence of the child's behavior will increase the likelihood that he will put away his toys after playing with them.

The key element to Skinner's theory is the reinforcer, which may be positive or negative. A positive reinforcer is one whose presence increases the likelihood of the response. A reward like food, money, or verbal praise are considered positive reinforcers. A negative reinforcer is one whose absence increases the likelihood of the response.
]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=B.F.+Skinner
Wundt used the method of Introspection to investigate psychological phenomena. This involved the subject's observation and reporting of his own inner thoughts and sensations, and was very difficult to master.

Although Wundt's theories and methods fell out of favor in the 1920's, his greatest contribution was to demonstrate that psychology could become a true science.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wilhelm+Wundt
During the course of the experiment, both the prisoners and guards rapidly internalized their roles (they started to become their roles), with the guards becoming sadistic, and the prisoners becoming passive and depressed. Originally designed as a two-week experiment, the duration was cut short after 6 days due to the emotional trauma experienced by the participants.

The study demonstrated what Zimbardo calls the Lucifer Effect - how good people can turn evil in response to the situation they are in, and not as a result of their real personalities.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Philip+Zimbardo
James is known for the James-Lange Theory of Emotion, which he formulated independently of Carl Lange. According to the theory, an emotion is simply the mind's interpretation of certain physiological processes that occur as a response to certain stimuli.

One of James' most famous examples is that when we see a bear, we do not run because we are afraid. According to James, we see a bear and then we run, and that is why we are afraid. His explanation is that when exposed to a stimulus such as a bear, our nervous system reacts with an increased heart rate, a rush of adrenaline, or muscle tension, and our perception of those changes is what is referred to as emotion.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=William+James
The study was composed of an experimenter, a learner (who was an accomplice), and a teacher (the participant). The "teacher" was instructed by the experimenter to deliver increasingly stronger electric shocks whenever the learner gave a wrong response. After several wrong answers and voltage increases, the "learner" would start to bang on the wall that separated him from the "teacher", scream, and generally make it clear that he was in pain. After several more shocks, the learner ceased responding.

Milgrim found that, even though most participants didn't want to continue delivering the shocks, they would do it as long as the researcher kept telling them to do so.

Milgram concluded that people's obedience may be explained by the Agentic State Theory, which states that people see themselves as mere instruments for implementing the wishes of a higher authority, and can therefore not be held liable for their actions, since they are "just doing their job." Milgram believed that this explains how soldiers were able to act as they did during the Holocaust.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stanley+MilgramClassical Conditioning. From his work studying digestion in dogs, he observed that the dogs would salivate at the mere sight of food.

Pavlov originally discovered the idea of conditioning by accident - he noticed that dogs began to salivate even before they were presented with food. He later tested the concept using what became his most famous experiment. In that experiment he conditioning dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a bell. He did this by ringing a bell as he presented food, at which the dogs would respond by salivating. After several trials of the bell and food presented together, Pavlov rang the bell alone without presenting food and the dogs gave the usual salivary response. Salivation in response to the ringing of the bell is known as a "conditioned response"

Pavlov's work lay the foundation for Behaviorism, which dominated the field of psychology from the 19th century until the first half of the 20th century. He also introduced many conditioning terms, including Conditioned Response, Unconditioned Response, Conditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Stimulus, and more.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ivan+Pavlov
Tolman is well-known for his theory on Latent Learning, which states that learning occurs even if there is no reward. He demonstrated this in an experiment where rats were trained to run a maze without a reward. After a few days, a reward was introduced.

The day after the reward was introduced, the rats began to run the maze faster. This showed that the rats developed a mental map of the maze when they were going through it without a reward. Upon introducing the reward, the rats demonstrated their learning by being able to run the maze faster in order to get the reward.

Translated in human terms, you could go to the supermarket every week and go past the Baking Needs aisle without having to purchase any item from that section. This does not mean that you have not learned where the baking items are located. If one day you needed to buy a sack of flour, you would be able to go straight to that aisle because you already knew where it was.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Edward+TolmanMisinformation Effect and False Memories.

The Misinformation Effect refers to how people's memories may be changed by what they are told. Loftus demonstrated this in a study where subjects were shown footage of an automobile accident, and were later asked to estimate the speed of the collision.

She found that the given estimates varied in proportion to the intensity of the verb used to describe the accident. Participants gave a higher speed estimate when they were asked at what speed the cars were going when they "smashed" into each other, rather than when they were asked at what speed the cars were going when they "hit" each other.

The Misinformation Effect may cause False Memories. Loftus demonstrated that False Memories may be created by means of suggestion by using the Lost in the Mall Technique, where children were asked if they remembered the time when they got lost in a mall and were later rescued.

Although none of the children studied ever experienced getting lost in the mall, many of them reported that they did remember the event, and some were even able to provide details of the event. Loftus believed that when the children were told of the event, they imagined it happening, thereby creating a false memory where the imagined event was confused with a real event.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elizabeth+Loftus
His work with animals led him to formulate the Law of Effect, which states that when a behavior is followed by a desirable consequence, it becomes associated with that situation so that the behavior becomes more likely to be performed when the same situation is encountered. In the puzzle box experiment, the cat finds itself in a situation where it is trapped in a box. If the cat was able to escape by pushing on the door, then it will likely do the same thing when it is put back in the box. Conversely, if a behavior is followed by an undesirable consequence, then that behavior becomes less likely to be repeated.

Thorndike's work later led to the development of Operant Conditioning, a type of learning which involves forming an association between one's behavior and its consequences.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Edward+Thorndike
Rogers believed that humans have a "Self-Actualizing" tendency - an innate drive that pushes the person to fulfill his potentials. A "Fully-Functioning Person" is an individual who is continually moving toward self-actualization. This type of person is open to life's experiences, has trust in himself, and is able to express his feelings and act independently.

However, to become a fully-functioning person, one needs to have experienced Unconditional Positive Regard and not have developed "Conditions of Worth." Oftentimes as children, we receive positive regard from significant people, notably our parents, only when we meet certain conditions. For example, a child may feel that he is loved when he's told that he is being a "good boy" but not when he has misbehaved. This creates conditions of worth, where the child feels that he becomes worthy of love only when his actions are consistent with what is expected of him.

Rogers believed that the work of the therapist is to create a relationship with the client where he is able to experience Unconditional Positive Regard so that he may be able to grow and become a fully-functioning person.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carl+RogersSigmund Freud, but her work focused more on the importance of the Ego and its role in striving to strike a balance between the Id's desire for pleasure, and the Superego's moralistic demands. She expounded on the concept of Defense Mechanisms as the Ego's means for dealing with anxiety.

Anna Freud introduced the concept of Developmental Lines, which emphasize the nature of child development as a continuous and a cumulative process, and the idea that it is possible to move forward (progress) or backwards (regress) along the continuum.

Anna believed that it may sometimes be necessary for an individual to regress for a brief period of time in order to deal with some overwhelming challenge. Once the person overcomes the challenge, he/she may again move forward.

For example, an only child who has successfully mastered toilet training may seem to "forget" his training when faced with the pressure of an impending sibling. Once he has adjusted to the new member of the family, then the issue will be resolved and he will be ready to move forward again.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anna+Freud
The tasks represented typical abilities of children at various ages. A child's score is represented by a "mental age." If a 5-year-old child got a mental age of 7 years old, it would mean that the child was able to pass the items that were normally expected of a 7-year-old child.

The Binet-Simon Scale was later adapted by Lewis Terman in Stanford University, which became known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. It has undergone several revisions, and remains to be one of the most widely used IQ Tests today.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alfred+BinetSocial Learning Theory, which states learning happens by observing others and modeling their behaviors.

According to Social Learning Theory, If we see that other people get desirable outcomes by behaving in a certain manner, then we are more likely to behave in a similar way. According to Bandura, Social Learning occurs from a combination of environmental and psychological factors.

Social behavior is also influenced, according to this theory, by being rewarded and/or punished for these actions. For example, if a child sees his older brother bring home a good report card and he gets a great reward for it, the child may observe this, see the older brother get rewarded, and then learn that having a good report card will get rewarded so he should do it too.

Bandura is also known for his work on Self-Efficacy, which refers to one's belief that he is capable of successfully performing a certain task to meet a goal.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Albert+BanduraAdler School of Professional Psychology, which makes social responsibility its primary focus in all its curricula and initiatives.

One of his most important contributions is the concept of the Inferiority Complex. Inferiority complex is a term used to describe people who compensate for feelings of inferiority (feeling like they're less than other people, not as good as others, worthless, etc.) by acting ways that make them appear superior. They do this because controlling others may help them feel less personally inadequate.

Adler is also known for emphasizing the importance of birth order in personality development. He believed that firstborn children experience a period in their life when they are the center of attention, only to be dethroned with the birth of a sibling. Firstborn children also feel a heavy burden of having to be responsible for the younger siblings. The feeling of being dethroned, and the immense pressure of having to be the responsible one, makes them susceptible to developing neuroses and substance addiction. Adler also believed that the youngest children tend to be spoiled, and this leads them to lack empathy. Middle children, who experience neither dethronement or being overindulged, tend to be the most well-adjusted and are more likely to become successful.

Adler believed in the importance of prevention, and advocated parent education as the best way to protect children from growing up and developing psychological problems. He emphasized the need for establishing a democratic environment where children feel that they are equal to others - neither inferior nor superior. He discouraged corporal punishment, and admonished parents to avoid the twin evils of pampering and neglect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alfred+AdlerHumanistic Psychology, a school of thought that focused on the potential of the individual and his need for growth and self-actualization. It is based on the fundamental belief that people are innately good, and that deviating from this natural tendency results in social and psychological problems.

Maslow's most well known contribution to Humanistic Psychology is the Hierarchy of Needs.

According to Maslow, humans have certain needs that must be fulfilled for healthy living. These needs motivate us to act the way we do, and in particular, in ways that satisfy the needs that are not yet fulfilled. In addition, Maslow suggested that these needs are not all equally important, but exist in a hierarchy (shaped like a pyramid), with the most important, basic needs at the bottom. For example, at the very bottom of the pyramid are things necessary for daily survival, like food and water. At the top of the pyramid is self actualization, which is the most wonderful thing a person can achieve, but is not necessary to sustain daily life.

Maslow's work was a turning point in psychology - before him, psychologists were preoccupied on mental illness and abnormality. In contrast, Maslow focused on mental health. His humanistic psychology gave rise to other types of therapy that were guided by the same belief in man's innate goodness and potential for growth.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abraham+Maslowtheory of personality.

The opposite of introvert is Extrovert.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Introvert+%28Introversion%29
Carl Jung developed the idea of the extrovert and extroversion in his theory of personality.

The opposite of Extrovert is Introvert.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extrovert+%28Extroversion%29
Jung differentiates between the "personal unconscious," which he recognizes as an important part of the normal psyche, and the "collective unconscious", which refers to innate psychological predispositions shared by all human beings throughout history.

Jung also developed a theory of personality, which defines eight personality types based on the opposing attitudes of introversion and extroversion. According to him, attitudes refer to a predisposition to behave in a certain manner. People who are classified as introverts place importance on their subjective view of the world, while extroverts place more emphasis on objectivity and surrounding influences.

Jung further identified four functions of the personality: feeling, thinking, sensation, and intuition. Feeling and thinking refer to rational thought processes that allow us to understand the value and meaning of things. Sensation and intuition are non-rational functions by which we perceive the world - either through our sense organs (sensation), or by means of an unconscious process (intuition).

The four functions and the two attitudes combine to create eight distinct personality types: extroverted-thinking, introverted-thinking, extroverted-feeling, introverted-feeling, extroverted-sensing, introverted-sensing, extroverted-intuitive, and introverted-intuitive. These personality types formed the basis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which is the world's most widely used personality assessment tool used to determine how a person perceives the world and makes decisions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Carl+Jung
One of Freud's most important contributions is the idea that the unconscious mind holds the key to understanding conscious thoughts and behavior, and the role that dreams play in unlocking what is hidden or repressed beneath conscious awareness.

Freud is also known for proposing a theory of personality based on the Stages of Psychosexual Development. According to this theory, people gain pleasure from specific erogenous zones as they go through the stages. Freud believed there were 5 stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent and Genital. At each of these stages, pleasure is focused on a particular part of the body. Too much or too little pleasure in any one of these stages caused a fixation which would lead to personality or psychological disorders. For example, too much pleasure in the phallic stage could lead to obsessive masturbation and sexual dysfunction as an adult.

Freud also developed the model of the psyche composed of the Id, Ego, and Superego. The Id works on the pleasure principle - it seeks to avoid pain and increase pleasure at any cost. It drives us to search for food when hungry, rest when tired, and other basic impulses that ensure our survival. The Superego acts as the moral police, and demands that we act in a moral and socially appropriate manner, no matter the circumstance. It works in direct contradiction to the Id. The Ego works as the executive of the psyche, striving to find a balance between the Id's hedonism and the Superego's moralism.

Although many people find Freud's ideas controversial, he was one of the most influential figures in the entire field of psychology. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sigmund+Freud
There are different types of lucid dreams, such as Dream-Initiated Lucid Dreaming (DILD) which occurs when you are in the middle of a dream and suddenly realize that you're dreaming. Others are reportedly able to go directly from a waking state into lucid dreaming, which is known as Wake-Initiated Lucid Dream or WILD.

Some people believe that Lucid dreaming has benefits including increasing creativity and aiding in problem-solving, and providing an opportunity to practice new skills while in a dream state. Lucid dreaming may also be used in a therapeutic manner, such as providing a safe venue to face one's fears and improve confidence by providing an opportunity to practice social skills.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lucid+Dreaming
A classic example of Double Dissociation is speech and language comprehension. Although both processes pertain to use of language, the brain structures that control them work independently. When a part of the brain called the Broca's area is damaged, patients may still understand language but be unable to speak fluently. They know what they want to say, but are unable to express themselves. On the other hand, when a part of the brain called Wernicke's area is damaged, patients may still speak fluently, but be unable to comprehend language. This results in properly constructed but nonsensical sentences.

By establishing Double Dissociation, scientists are able to determine which mental processes are specialized to certain areas of the brain.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Double+Dissociation
Most mental functions are distributed across the hemispheres but there are specific processes that are specialized to one hemisphere. For example, both sides of the brain perform functions related to language. But in most people, grammar and vocabulary are localized to the left side of the brain, while understanding the emotional content of language is a function of the right hemisphere.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lateralization
For example, you find yourself in a traffic jam while rushing to work one morning. You self-talk could be pessimistic and you might think, "My whole day is ruined. If I don't get to work on time, I'll never hear the end of it. My boss will think that I'm no good and will surely pass me up for that promotion I've been working all year for." You will then start your day in a bad mood and feel demotivated thinking that there's no point in working hard since you already ruined your chances for a promotion.

On the other hand, you could have a more positive self-talk and think, "I'll probably be no more than ten minutes late. I guess I'll just have to take a quick lunch instead of going out to eat. If I can turn in my report before the end of the day and make sure that it's error-free, I might still have a chance to get that promotion."]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self+Talk
Let's say you went on a job interview and you believe that the interview went well - you gave good answers to the recruiter's questions, and you have all the qualifications needed for the job, then you will have a positive emotion about it. You might feel happy and excited. But if you perceive that it did not go well, then you will feel negatively about the event. You might feel sad, dejected, or helpless.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Appraisal
The Ideal Self is an idealized version of yourself created out of what you have learned from your life experiences, the demands of society, and what you admire in your role models.

For example, your parents are medical doctors who are respected and admired in the community, and experience tells you that in order to be happy, you need to be smart and have a high-paying job. Your Ideal Self might be someone who excels in science subjects, spends a lot of time studying, and does not get queasy at the sight of blood. If your Real Self is far from this idealized image, then you might feel dissatisfied with your life and consider yourself a failure.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ideal+Self
Let's say you want to teach your dog to sit. If you lure your dog to a sitting position by dangling a treat over her, while at the same time saying "sit," guess which stimulus is causing your dog to sit? In this case, smelling the treat overshadows hearing the word "sit" because the treat is more relevant than your voice.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overshadowinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spotlight+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spillover+Effect
For example, if a woman thinks that her husband will leave her for another woman, she will act in ways that will directly or indirectly cause her belief to come true. She might get jealous easily and make a fuss about him being friends with other women. She might pick fights whenever she suspects that he is cheating on her, or she might go through his personal things to look for evidence of cheating. Eventually, her actions will put a strain on their marriage, and her husband just might leave her, causing her prediction to come true.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self+Fulfilling+Prophecy
For example, if I met my sales target, it's because I'm a great salesperson. But if I did not meet my sales target, it's because the economy is bad.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Serving+Bias
For example, you want to study whether bottle-feeding (Cause) is related to an increased risk of diarrhea in infants (Effect). It would seem logical that bottle-fed infants are more prone to diarrhea since water and the bottle could get contaminated, milk could go bad, etc. But if you were to conduct this study, you would learn that bottle-fed infants are less likely to develop diarrhea than breast-fed infants. It would seem that bottle-feeding actually protected against the illness. But in truth, you would have missed a very important confounding variable - mother's education.

If you take mother's education into account, you would learn that better-educated mothers are more likely to bottle-feed their infants, who are also less likely to develop diarrhea due to better hygienic practices of the mothers. In other words, mother's education is related to both the Cause and the Effect. Not only did the Confounding Variable suppress the effect of bottle-feeding, it even appeared to reverse it - confounding results, indeed!

This example illustrates the importance of identifying and controlling for possible Confounding Variables in any research study. A thorough review of available literature should help you do this.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confounding+Variable
An example of a displaced emotion is when a wife, who is frustrated with her husband's lack of ambition, puts extreme pressure on her children to overachieve. Another example is when a teenager worried about his grades comes home and lashes out at his sister.

In both cases, the real object of the emotion is something that the person is unable to face, and so releases it towards a more convenient or safer object.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Displaced
For example, if someone were passed over for a promotion, that person could think that it is because her boss didn't like her. This could lead to depression and a lack of motivation to work, which would in turn decrease her chances of being promoted in the future. From the Cognitive Behavioral perspective, her depression is caused by how she interpreted the event, and not by the actual event itself. This means that if she were to change her thinking, it could lead to a better result. Instead of thinking that her boss didn't like her, she could make an honest assessment of her performance and identify specific areas for improvement. Then she would be able to work on improving her weaknesses and increase her chances of being promoted next time.

Cognitive Behavioral therapy has been shown to be most effective for anxiety, depression, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder,]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Behavioral+Therapy
The World Values Survey conducted from 1981 to 2007 measured SWB by asking two questions. The first question deals with people's affect or feeling (Taking all things together, would you say you are very happy, rather happy, not at all happy?). The second question is an intellectual assessment that measures how well their current state is living up to their expectations of what life should be (All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subjective+Well-Beinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Structured+Interview
In modern psychology and psychiatry, hysteria has been replaced with the more accurate terms "conversion disorder" and "somatization disorder," which both indicate the presence of physical symptoms with no physiological explanation.

"Conversion disorder" is one where motor and sensory functions are affected, resulting in symptoms like numbness, paralysis, and blindness, among others.

"Somatization disorder" affects the gastrointestinal, nervous, cardiopulmonary, or reproductive systems. Manifestations could include pain in multiple parts of the body, vomiting, diarrhea, and erectile dysfunction.
]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HysteriaNull Hypothesis when you should in fact reject it. The Null Hypothesis is simply a statement that is the opposite of your hypothesis. For example, you think that dog owners are friendlier than cat owners. Your null hypothesis would be: "Dog owners are as friendly as cat owners."

You will make a Type II Error if dog owners are actually friendlier than cat owners, and yet you conclude that both kinds of pet owners have the same level of friendliness. In this case, you should reject the null hypothesis since there is a real difference in friendliness between the two groups. If you accept the null hypothesis and say that both types of pet owners are equally friendly, then you are making a Type II Error.

See also: Type I Error]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Type+II+ErrorNull Hypothesis even if it is true. The Null Hypothesis is simply a statement that is the opposite of your hypothesis. For example, you think that boys are better in arithmetic than girls. Your null hypothesis would be: "Boys are not better than girls in arithmetic."

You will make a Type I Error if you conclude that boys are better than girls in arithmetic when in reality, there is no difference in how boys and girls perform. In this case, you should accept the null hypothesis since there is no real difference between the two groups when it comes to arithmetic ability. If you reject the null hypothesis and say that one group is better, then you are making a Type I Error.

See also: Type II Error]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Type+I+Errorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transitivityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Seriationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Centrationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preoperational+Thought+%28Pre-Operational+Thought%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shape+Constancyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Size+Constancyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reversibilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decentering+%28Decentration%29For example, a 1st grader will ask what is that green thing in the spaghetti, why is it there, why does it taste like that, and on and on. At this stage, Intuitive Thinking would be encouraged by a helpful adult who would answer the questions as much as possible or stimulate the child to ask questions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intuitive+Thought
For example, a child will sing to a teddy bear and pretend to put it to sleep. They can also exhibit egocentrism where they only see their point of view, or animism, where inanimate objects are considered lifelike. This child can therefore get very attached to the teddy bear because it considers the toy to be a living friend.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Symbolic+Function+Substagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Misattribution+Of+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+Attritionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mood-Congruent+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conjunction+Fallacy+%28Conjunction+Error%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Base+Rate+Fallacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gamblers+Fallacy
Phenotype is not just a function of your genes though - many of the characteristics of a person that are observable are the result of the combination of what is inherited and the environment. For example, a person may have the genotype for depression but because the family was very loving, happy and well adjusted, the person never develops the symptoms of depression.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phenotype
This long stare causes the eyes’ muscles to become tired, causing a slight involuntary movement of the eyeball.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autokinetic+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Acuityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ponzo+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Instrumental+Conditioning
For example, a dog with the nature to bark at visitors thinking they are intruders might have been taught to sit quietly when a guest enters through reward and punishment. Under stress, however, it may have instinctual drift, disregarding the learned behavior and barking at the guest.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Instinctual+Drift]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moral+Reasoninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Socio-Cultural+Approachhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Procedural+Controlshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Consciencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Serotoninhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dopamine
Lack of sunlight and the general dreariness of the winter months may be one cause of SAD. For this reason patients of the disorder are often treated using sun lamps or tanning beds. Another reason may be the isolation that occurs when the weather forces you to stay inside.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Seasonal+Affective+Disorder
For instance, if you are driving and hear a siren, all the other cars pull over, and then you are nearly run off the road by a speeding fire truck - the next time you hear a siren you will take it as a cue to pull over.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=One-Trial+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Optic+Chiasm]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operant+Chamber
Being predisposed to a disorder doesn’t mean that we will definitely develop it, only that we are more vulnerable to it based on our genetic makeup. Biological risk factors combine with environmental factors such as stress or diet to trigger a disorder. (Environment and genes can also protect us from developing certain conditions.)

Research studies using twins have shown that many traits and disorders are heritable. For example, in identical twin pairs, if one twin is diagnosed with schizophrenia, there is a 50% chance that the other twin will also be diagnosed. But in fraternal twin pairs, this rate is only 15%. Because identical twins share more genes than fraternal twins, we can conclude that schizophrenia has an inherited biological basis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biological+Predisposition
A person can acquire a taste aversion to a type of food, due to circumstances, as well. For example, an individual may eat lasagna at an early age and become sick. The sickness may be caused by any reason-(bad tomato in the sauce or the meat not thoroughly cooked). Regardless of the reason, that individual may have a negative reaction to eating lasagna any given time after the experience.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Taste+AversionParticipant Observation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethnography
In contrast, if someone throws eggs at his neighbor's house, the neighbor will likely respond by adding a mixture of dandelion seeds to some fertilizer and spreading it on their lawn in the middle of the night.

See also: Reciprocity]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reciprocity+Normhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Angelmans+Syndrome
This is the opposite of Bottom-Up Processing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Top-Down+Processing
If you're the type of person who understands concepts and ideas by starting with the details and then working your way up to the main idea of overall concept, then you're a bottom-up processor.

The opposite of this is Top-Down Processing.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bottom-Up+Processing
She also begins to see her mother as an obstacle or rival for the father, and may even blame her mother for her lack of penis. Over time, the girl starts to internalize these feelings toward her mother and they start to form a healthier relationship.

See also: Penis Envy]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electra+Complexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensitive+PeriodT-Test. It represents the difference between the mean or average scores of two groups, while taking into account any variation in scores.

For example, if you hypothesize that pet owners are more sociable than non-pet owners, you would find a way to measure sociability so that you would get a sociability score for all participants in each group.

Let's say that the mean score of pet owners is higher than that of non-pet owners. Your question would be: is the sociability score of pet owners significantly higher than the other group? The t-value measures if the difference in scores of the two groups is big enough for you to say that pet owners are indeed more sociable than non-pet owners, or if the result was something that could have just happened by chance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=T-Value
First, it determines if the means are sufficiently different from each other to say that they belong to two distinct groups. This is done by getting the average score of each group, and then getting the difference of the two means.

Let's say you want to compare two different methods in teaching vocabulary to see which one is more effective. You will get two groups of students and then use one method (Method 1) to teach Group A, and then another method (Method 2) to teach Group B the same set of words. Afterwards, you give both groups a 100-item vocabulary test, and then get the average of each group. If Group A scored an average of 90 points and Group B got an average score of 80 points, the difference between the two scores would be 10 points.

Second, the T-Test also takes into account the variability in scores of the two groups. This is called the standard error, which simply answers the question: "how far is each score from the group mean?" If scores do not deviate far from the mean, the standard error will be low, which is what you want. But if there is a lot of fluctuation in the scores, you will get a high standard error.

The difference between means, with the standard error taken into account, will give a T-Value. The T-Value is the basis for determining if the 10-point difference is enough for you to conclude that Method 1 is more effective in teaching vocabulary than Method 2, or if that result is something that could have happened by chance.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=T-Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deprivation+Studyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Memeinsight which was identified by Wolfgang Kohler while studying the behavior of chimpanzees. He said that insight learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens all-of-a-sudden through understanding the relationships various parts of a problem rather than through trial and error.

Sultan, one of Kohler's chimpanzes, learned to use a stick to pull bananas from outside of his cage by putting pieces of stick together. Given two sticks that could be fitted together to make a single pole that was long enough to reach the bananas, aligned the sticks and in a flash of sudden inspiration, fitted the two sticks together and pulled in the bananas. He didn't do this by trial and error, but had a sort of sudden inspiration or insight.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Insight+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fecundityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Butterfly+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pollyannaishhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Cognition]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Countertransferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Ability+Testshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Speed+Testshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agapehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Outgroup+Bias
There are additional criteria, but these give you a good idea of the disorder. For additional information see: http://www.mentalhealth.com]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysthymiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Progressive+Errorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discriminant+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Convergent+ValidityTinnitus can be caused by a number of factors, such as Long periods of loud noise exposure, head (or neck) injuries, and ototoxic (poisonous to the ear) medications. Unfortunately, there are no cures for tinnitus at this time.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tinnutus]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Levels+of+Processing]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Synethesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Second+Order+Conditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Object+Relationshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Method+of+Locihttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Convergent+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Divergent+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ataxiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Existentialismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Denial
An example is when someone is unable to stay in a long-term relationship and always finds a reason to break off his relationships. He may insist that there is a rational explanation for leaving a relationship, but his actions may actually be driven by an unconscious desire for love and belongingness, and an overwhelming fear of rejection. Deep down, he wants and needs to be in a loving relationship, but he find ways and reasons to put an end to the relationship so as to avoid being rejected.

The idea that our behavior is driven by unconscious motives was put forth by Sigmund Freud, who said that the mind is like an iceberg, and that only a small part is revealed to conscious awareness, while the bigger, deeper reasons for our actions lie beneath the surface. Abraham Maslow, who is best known for his work on the Hierarchy of Needs, also said that unconscious motives take a central role in determining how people behave. He said that any action must be understood by looking at what basic need it satisfies and more often than not, it is our unconscious rather than conscious motives that direct our behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconscious+Motivationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Meta+Analysis+%28Meta-Analysis%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Effect+Sizehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=EthnocentrismParaphilia. It is the opposite of the term Sadism (taking pleasure in causing pain) although these two paraphilias are often jointly referred to as Sadomasochism. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Masochismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eidetic+Imageryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ethogramhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rationalparaphilia or conditions characterized by abnormal sexual desires. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Exhibitionismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Determinismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Illnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anecdotal+Evidence
The simplistic definition is that the null hypothesis is the opposite of the hypothesis being tested. The researcher suspects the hypothesis to be true (and thus is doing research to support the hypothesis), but the null hypothesis is the hypothesis the researcher tries to disprove. The researcher never proves or accepts the null hypothesis, but can only reject it or not reject it. Confused? How about an example?

Hypothesis: Roses exhibit greater rate of growth when planted in soil rather than compost.

Null Hypothesis: Roses do not exhibit greater rate of growth when planted in soil rather than compost.

Ok, these are lame, but they make the point. Let's say the researcher collects and analyzes the data, and the results are statistically significant at the 99% level (the data show that roses do grow better in soil with 99% confidence) - in this case, the researcher would reject the null hypothesis and accept the hypothesis.
]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Null+Hypothesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Induced+Motionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inductive+Reasoninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Implosionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attrition
If we want to study and try to measure the abstract concept of love we might use a questionnaire that asks for the person's reactions to certain situations. We will then include some questions where we already know what the answers are based on existing knowledge. When we compare the new scores to the scores of the questions we know the answers to, the scores should be similar. If they are, then the measuring instrument is probably actually measuring the concept of love.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Construct+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depressive+Realismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Concealmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Panthemiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Manipulation+Checkhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Organic+AmnesiaYoung-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory) is a theory of color and how humans perceive color. According to this theory, the human retina contains three different receptors for color (meaning each one is most sensitive to one color): one is most sensitive to red, one is most sensitive to green, and one is most sensitive to blue.

These color receptors combine the colors to produce the perception of virtually any color. You notice that there are no receptors specific to orange, but by stimulating the right cones in the right way, orange color is produced.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trichromatic+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cross+Cultural+Perspecitve]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agonistic+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Agoraphobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somnambulism
An example of this is someone who feels stuck in a dead-end job that they really dislike and tells everyone how much they want a new job, but fails to take any action to actually find a new job. Instead of changing their behavior (i.e., doing whatever is necessary to find a new job), they continue to do the same old things and remain in the job they dislike.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Therapeutic+Bindhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reversible+Figurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Maturityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DyadMary Ainsworth observed. Ainsworth observed the behavioral reactions of children who were left alone for a period of time and then reunited with their mothers. Ainsworth reported that the children with secure attachments showed minimal distress when their mother left them alone and sought comfort when their mother returned. She noted that these children appeared to trust their caregivers would meet their needs. Additionally, the caregivers of children with secure attachments responded appropriately and consistently to their children's needs.

In contrast, the children without a secure attachment to their caregivers displayed more fearful, angry, confused, and upset behaviors than the securely attached children. The caregivers of these children did not respond consistently or appropriately to their children.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secure+AttachmentPhenomenology.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phenomenologicalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Analysis+of+Variance+%28ANOVA%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reuptakehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intellectualizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Construal
According to Alfred Adler, a feeling of inferiority may be brought about by upbringing as a child (for example, being compared to a sibling), physical and mental limitations, or experiences of social discrimination (for example, having limited opportunities due to race, economic situation, or gender).

An Inferiority Complex may cause an individual to overcompensate for his weaknesses. For example, someone who feels inferior because he is shorter than average may become overly concerned with his appearance - he may go on a strict diet or engage in rigorous exercise, hoping that a slimmer body will make him appear taller. If this is taken to the extreme, it becomes a neurosis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inferiority+Complexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Data
]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Quantitative+Datahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Qualititative+Data]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decayhormone and also known as adrenaline. It occurs naturally in the body (secreted by adrenal glands) and can also be synthetically made to be used as medication.

Strong emotions, in particular fear and anger, cause epinephrine to be secreted into the bloodstream which increases heart rate, strength, blood pressure, and metabolism. This is commonly known as the Fight or Flight response - it is your body preparing yourself for activity (fighting or running away). Epinephrine can be used medically during a heart attack to stimulate the heart into working again and during a severe allergic reaction (anaphylactic shock) to help a weakened heart pump enough blood throughout the body to keep it alive. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Epinephrinehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adrenal+Gland+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Melatonin
In “normal distribution” there should be a roughly equal number of occurrences of a measured trait on both sides of the mid-point of the bell curve.

The “skewness” (percent of difference) statistic measures how great a change there is in the number of trait occurrences on either side of the mid-point of the curve.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Skewed+Distribution
You should know that Freud, who pioneered this area, had doubts about the realities of these memories and whether recovered memories were accurate. Thus, it is possible that some or all of these memories are actually false memories]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recovered+Memory
This happens frequently when a subject (human or animal) learns to associate an unintended stimulus (a sound, gesture, facial expression, etc.) with an expected action or response.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Expectancy+Effectshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Debriefinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positivism
For example, the teacher was proactive in providing guidance and additional instruction about the science project because they knew the topic was often difficult with students in the past. Used in I/O (Industrial and Organizational) psychology, proactive behavior involves acting in advance of a future situation, rather than just reacting. In this view, proactivity or proactive behavior by individuals refers to anticipatory, change-oriented, and self-initiated behavior in situations that call for it. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proactive
There are medications and treatments that can help control symptoms. Since Parkinson's results from damage to cells that release dopamine (a chemical messenger in the brain that controls coordination in motion), treatments attempt to replace the lost dopamine. There are also some surgical procedures that are helpful in managing or suppressing symptoms. Unfortunately, none of these treatments stop the progression of the disease.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parkinson%27s+Disease
Also see Phenomenological.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phenomenology
Psychology grew out of philosophy (and physiology). Philosophers grappled with psychological questions hundreds of years ago, such as: how do sensations become mental thoughts? Example - how does the feel of a hand stroking your face become a thought? And then if I ask you to imagine that feeling, can you do so?

]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Philosophy
Which line looks longer (obviously they are the same length, but as you can see, they look to be different lengths)?

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]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mueller-Lyer+Illusionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Generalize+%28generalizability%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ecological+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reductionismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Diffusion+Of+Responsibility
In the 1960s, a patient who had part of his brain surgically removed was shown to lose some long term memory but not his childhood memories. He lost his temporal lobe but it appears that nervous interaction with other areas of the brain, such as the lateral cortex, resulted in those childhood experiences being stored elsewhere. We can compare Consolidation to the backup disk that we use to store some of the documents in our hard drive.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Consolidationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Situational+Cueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Misattributionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Covariance
This is important if you want to extend the findings of the study to a larger group of people, not just those in the study. For example, imagine you are at the supermarket picking out grapes. There are red, green, small, large, and globe grapes. In a representative sample you would have an equivalent number of each type of grape. You could then taste them all and make generalizations about all grapes just from tasting these few because your sample represents the larger population.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Representative+Samplehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Samplehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inferential+Statisticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Descriptive+Statisticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Observer+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Random+Selectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Co-Dependenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selfhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Constructivism
Wilhelm Wundt, who is considered the pioneer Structuralist, set up the very first psychological laboratory in 1879. Following Wundt was Titchner who popularized the field (he was one of Wundt's students). TItchner was interested in the conscious mind. He used a technique called introspection to try to understand the conscious mind. Introspection is a process of having a person "look inward", focus on, and try to understand the emotion or thought they are experiencing at that moment.

The Structuralism school of thought has influenced psychology in its pursuit of the analysis of the adult mind (the evaluation of the sum total of lifetime experiences). It seeks to evaluate these experiences in terms of the simplest definable components and then attempts to find how these components fit together to form more complex experiences. Another goal is to find how these experiences correlate to physical events. This is accomplished through practices such as introspection, self-reports (of sensations), viewpoints, feelings, and emotions.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=StructuralismUnconscious Mind (people are unaware of them). This perspective is still based on Freud's psychoanalytic perspective about early experiences being so influential on current behavior, but the focus on sex is not as great.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychoanalytic+Perspective+%28Psychoanalytic+Approach%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Single-Blind+Research+Method
The steps to the scientific method include describing the topic of study, making predictions (hypotheses), select a method for the study, controlling external variables, collecting data (running the study), analyzing & explaining the findings, and reporting & sharing the findings (usually via publication or lecturing). There are variations but these are the basic steps in the scientific method.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Scientific+Methodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=True+Experimental+Design
The effect came out of a series of studies conducted at the Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric by Elton Mayo and a team of researchers from Harvard University. The purpose of these studies was to examine the relationship between worker productivity and the environment in which the work was performed. The first study, which led to the Hawthorne Effect, examined the relationship between light intensity and worker productivity. The researchers found that productivity improved not from the lighting, but from the attention the workers received from the researchers themselves.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hawthorne+Effect
For example, you wanted to find out if the color of a drink affects people's perception of how sweet the beverage is. If you used a Within Subjects Design, you could give your participants two kinds of orange juice - one would be a light orange color (Treatment 1), while the other one would be a darker shade of orange (Treatment 2). The two drinks would be identical except for the color. You could then ask all of your participants to taste each beverage and rate its sweetness.

An advantage of this type of experimental design is that if your participants said that the darker orange juice is sweeter than the light colored juice, you would know that the result is due to the difference in color of the two drinks, rather than from individual preferences. Another advantage is that this type of design requires a smaller number of participants. All you have to do is get a group of people and have them undergo all the treatments. If you used a different kind of design, a Between Subjects Design, then you would need twice as many participants.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Within+Subjects+Designhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Between+Subjects+Designhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intuitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Apparent+Motion
There can be neuropsychological underpinnings to personality traits and personality disorders. For example, research has shown there is an association between pathological gambling and front-temporal lobe abnormalities. These abnormalities also correspond with personality traits like impulsivity and novelty seeking behavior. Another research example is that prefrontal cortex dysfunction is associated with traits and decision making in psychopathy. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuropsychology
Sometimes eidetic memory and photographic memory are distinguished from one another with photographic memories being more associated with the recall of visual information such as lists and numbers. This is a rare ability and is more common in childhood, typically fading as a person grows older. Although this has not been proven scientifically (probably due to its comparative rareness) and accounts of it are largely anecdotal, persons who seem to possess this talent have a much easier time with tasks that involve mental recall. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eidetic+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biological+Perspectivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Modularityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biopsychosocial+Perspectivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cyclothymic+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychologisthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ABA+Design
The DSM criteria for Dissociative Fugue are:
1. The main disturbance is sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's customary place of work, with inability to recall one's past.
2. Confusion about personal identity or assumption of a new identity (partial or complete).
3. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of Dissociative Identity Disorder and is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (for example, a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition (for example, temporal lobe epilepsy).
4. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dissociative+Fuguehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Asperger%27s+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elaborative+Rehearsal
For example - late at night, you have been out partying all night, you get back home and you are hungry. you decide that it's time for pizza. So you pick up the phone and call information to get the number of a local pizza delivery place. When the operator gives the number, you say the number over and over so that you don't forget it in the time it takes to hang up and dial the number. This process of repeating the number over and over is maintenance rehearsal. It won't help get the information into long term memory, but it will help keep it in short term memory a little longer.

]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Maintenance+Rehearsal]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Arousalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Identity
If you are in early adulthood (around 18 years old) and are interested in being diagnosed as narcissistic as defined by the DSM IV-TR, you need to be arrogant, exploitative, require excessive admiration, have a sense of entitlement, and believe you are "special" and should only associate with other equally "special" people. In addition, try to step on people and offer insults whenever possible.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Narcissistic+Personality+%28narcissism%29
For example, a person may be reserved or outgoing, serious or happy-go-lucky, and submissive or dominant. All these traits form part of an individual's personality. When you put the source traits together, the make up the Surface Traits, which are the traits we see and think of as personality.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Source+Traithttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Schemahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatotypehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+Mental+Abilitieshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Compliance
Tourette’s Syndrome affects an estimated 1 out of every 100 people of all nationalities, although it's more common in males than females (approximately 3 males to every female). The onset of Tourette's Syndrom is usually recognized during childhood (between the ages of 7 and 10). Unfortunately, Tourette's is a chronic disorder that usually worsens when an individual is nervous or agitated.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tourette+Syndrom+%28Tourette%27s+Syndrom%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Cognitive+TheoryAlbert Bandura is a person's belief in his or her ability to complete a future task or solve a future problem. For example, if a person believes he is a brilliant scientist and can complete any scientific experiment, he has a high self-efficacy in science because he believes in his competency to perform a future experiment. Whether it is true that he is brilliant in science or not doesn't really matter. It only matters what he believes.

Self-Efficacy can also influence your goals, actions, and successes (or failures) in life. If your self-efficacy in an area is much lower than your ability, you will never challenge yourself or improve. If your self-efficacy in an area is much higher than your ability, you will set goals that are too high, fail, and possibly quit. The ideal self-efficacy is slightly above a person's ability: high enough to be challenging while still being realistic.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self+Efficacy
REBT is viewed as part of a continuum of psychological thought that traces itself back to Roman philosopher Epictetus and continues through the work not only of Ellis but of his contemporaries Aaron Beck and Alfred Adler. The fundamental premise of REBT is that humans do not get as emotionally disturbed by unfortunate circumstances as by how they construct their views and perspective of these circumstances through language, evaluative beliefs, meanings and philosophies about the world, themselves and others. This type of therapy is very personalized to help an individual tailor their own emotional responses to situation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rational+Emotive+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phenylketonuriahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pineal+Glandhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Normhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paradoxical+Sleephttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paresishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Novelty+Preferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motion+Parallaxhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motion+Aftereffect
This methodology is often used when dealing with sensitive and difficult topics like substance abuse or sexuality. It allows the interviewee to distance himself from the situation so that he will be free to answer candidly without fear of being judged negatively.

For example, in predicting whether participants in an alcohol treatment program were likely to drop out, they were given a set of vignettes which depicted normal social drinking behaviors, and problem drinking behaviors. Their ability to distinguish between normal and problematic drinking behavior was used as a predictor of whether they were likely to be successfully rehabilitated or not. (O'Connor, Davies, Heffernan, & van Eijk, 2003)

This method may also be used when you want to ask research participants to voice their opinion on topics which they may not have had personal experience.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Vignette
This reorganization of the pathways in our brain takes place at an astounding rate when we are young and rapidly acquiring new information, but the brains of adults are also “plastic” to a degree. There is evidence that, in patients with brain damage, healthy brain areas can take over for injured areas and adopt new functions. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brain+Plasticityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Word+Salad+%28verbal+salad%29]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Variablehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Twilight+Sleep
The subconscious is not necessarily a psychoanalytic term - the concept was written about before psychoanalytic theory was fully developed. Confusion can often arise between the concepts of the subconscious and the preconscious. The preconscious is a concept in psychoanalytical theory and is different from the subconscious in that the information can be easily brought to mind - it isn't repressed. An example of preconscious thought would be what you ate for dinner last night. Although you were (more than likely) not currently thinking about what you ate you can easily remember what that was. Information in the subconscious cannot be brought to mind as easily. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subconscious
Let's look at a well known example - Money. Money is a secondary reinforcer because it doesn't directly reinforce you--money itself doesn't make you less hungry, less thirsty, etc--but you can use the money to get food, water, and other primary reinforcers. Therefore, you get secondary reinforcement through the ability to use money to get primary reinforces.

Think of it this way, If you were stuck on a deserted island, a secondary reinforcer like money can't help you stay alive, right?]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schedule+of+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paranoia
It's not uncommon for these symptoms to lead the person to think they are 'going crazy', having a heart attack, or are going to die. Afterwards, the individual may become so afraid of having another panic attack and not being able to get help or medical care, that they insist on having a trusted person with them at all times, are afraid to leave the house, or are afraid to be in places or situations where they would be unable to get help.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Panic+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ObsessionSigmund Freud and is, at a very basic level, sexual desire and urges. The libido, which is part of the Id, is a sexual energy or force that can come into conflict with the conventions of what is typically considered civilized behavior. Other psychologists, like Carl Jung, viewed the libido more generally and thought it to be more of a creative or psychic energy that helps people accomplish more (like a motivating force).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Libidocircadian rhythm (24 hour cycle) that conditions the individual when to sleep and wake-up, when to eat, etc. Traveling upsets this entrainment and it takes a few days for the body to adapt to the new region and reset the circadian rhythm of the body. This is why traveling to other parts of the world (such as a European tour) creates such exhaustion.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Entrainment
See also: Elaboration Likelihood Model
Elaborative Rehearsal]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Elaborationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Construct
Color blindness can be classified as inherited, partial or complete. Inherited color blindness is most common in males, affecting both eyes but does not worsen over time - in other words, once you have it, you have it. Partial color blindness affects some colors while complete color blindness, which is a rare condition, affects all your color vision. Some color blinded people, for example, see red instead of green or blue instead of yellow.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Color+Blindness
For example could be training an intellectually disabled person the steps involved in using the city bus system; waiting for bus, entering, paying the appropriate fare, finding a seat, and getting off at the correct stop. An easy task for a normally intelligent individual but a complex, multi-step task for someone of below-average intelligence. The terminology involved in field of research is generally attributed to B.F. Skinner, (hyperlink?) a research psychologist that worked for Harvard University in the 1930's.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chaininghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attentionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Androgen
Criterion referenced testing is the method most often used by teachers. For example, a teacher announces that for mid-terms, all the questions will come from chapters 1-6 and that students need know all the definitions in those chapters. Also, the teacher states that a passing grade will be 70 - and a score of 60 or below will mean that the person had poor retention or understanding of the information, and did not fulfill the expectation of knowing definitions of important terms.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Criterion+Referenced+Testing
An adolescent exhibiting Conduct Disorder may show one or all of the following: cruelty to other people or animals, running away, skipping school, lying and stealing, setting fires. Therapy should be offered to the child as well as the family. If not treated, the antisocial behavior often gets worse, leading to juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conduct+Disorder
So, for example, when you play on an intramural softball team that meets once a week, you are part of that softball team's ingroup; people who are on the other teams are part of the outgroup. Or, it can be something on a much more grand scale like, the situation between religious groups in Ireland. They have been killing each other for years, because they each perceive their own group as being the "right" and "good" group, while the other group (the outgroup) is "bad" and "evil". See also: Ingroup]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Outgrouphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Socializationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Qualitative+Method
For example, imagine someone puts sand in the palm of your hand, one grain at a time. You may not notice the sand until 10 grains are placed in your hand. In this case, the Stimulus Threshold would be 10 grains of sand.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulus+Thresholdhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Disequilibriumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavioral+Psychology+%28behavioral+approach%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ParaphreniaFreud, humans have three main components to their personality that cause us to behave the way we do and make us who we are; the id, ego, and superego. The superego (Latin for "over the I") acts as our moral guide and mediates between the id and the ego. The superego contains the conscience, which makes us feel guilty for doing or thinking something wrong and good when we do something right.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Superegohttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confoundhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=External+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+ValidityPrimacy Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recency+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primacy+EffectAlbert Bandura, states that social behavior (any type of behavior that we display socially) is learned primarily by observing and imitating the actions of others. The social behavior is also influenced, according to this theory, by being rewarded and/or punished for these actions. For example, if a child sees his older brother bring home a good report card and he gets a great reward for it, the child may observe this, see the older brother get rewarded, and then learn that having a good report card will get rewarded so he should do it too.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Learning+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Influencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Consciousnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Concepthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Awarenesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Semantic+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuroseshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shapinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learned+Helplessnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxietyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antisocial+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antisocialhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antecedent+Conflicthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anorexia+Nervosahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Androgynyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anal+Stage
Freud believed that a child who does not successfully take control over their sphincter at the anal stage will become fixated and may end up with a anal-expulsive personality - which includes being disorganized, messy, careless, rebellious, and sometimes cruel.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anal-Expulsivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anal+Characterhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anaclitic+Depressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Introspectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Passive-Aggressivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attributionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Altered+State+%28of+consciousness%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adolescenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adolescencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zygotehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Y+Chromosomehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=X+Chromosomehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Withdrawalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wernickes+Area
A big difference could mean that there is some kind of problem (such as a learning problem). There is also a similar test for children that also has two sections, but the items are designed to be age specific (at least in the sense of being designed for children as opposed to adults).

See also: Wechsler Intelligence Scale For Children (WISC) ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wechsler+Adult+Intelligence+Scale+%28WAIS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Wavelengthhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Cliffhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Variable+Ratio+Schedule+%28VR%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adjustmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abnormalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Variable+Interval+Schedulehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Addictionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconscioushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconditional+Stimulushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconditioned+ResponseCarl Rogers, Unconditional Positive Regard is when one person is completely accepting toward another person. This is not just a show of acceptance, but is an attitude that is then demonstrated through behavior. Rogers indicated that for humanistic type of therapy to work, the therapist had to have this for the client.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconditional+Positive+Regardhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transsexualhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transference
For example, extra time watching TV or playing a video game. In this way, patients learn to "modify" their "behavior" in order to receive tokens.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Token+Economicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thalamushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Test-Retest+Reliabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Temporal+Lobes
For more information on the sodium potassium pump and the neural impulse, consult your book or the biological psychology class notes on AlleyDog.com(http://www.alleydog.com).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thresholdneurons, including the pre-synaptic neuron's axon terminal, the synaptic cleft, and the dendrite of the post-synaptic neuron, across which communications flow, usually in the form of neurotransmitter molecules secreted by the pre-synaptic neuron (on its axon terminal) that travel a short distance across the synaptic cleft (this is the actual space between the neurons - the space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of the other) to the post-synaptic neuron.

Once at the post-synaptic neuron, some of the neurotransmitters will attach themselves (bind) to some receptors. It is important to know that the neurotransmitters and receptors work like a lock and key; that is, they both have certain shapes and only specific neurotransmitters can fit into certain receptors.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SynapseAlfred Binet (in collaboration with Theodore Simon) was instructed by the French government to design a test that would identify children who would have problems with school and or learning the material that was designed for children in their own age range. a widely used intelligence test.

They then set out to create a test that measures a child's mental age (the average mental ability for a child of a specific chronological age). They could use this mental age as a guide, to see if, for example, a 5 year old has "normal" intelligence, which would be a mental age of 5, or a mental age that was above or below. The test does not identify why children perform above or below a specific age range, only at what mental age a child performs. The test does however, according to its creators, measure how well a child of a specific age will be able to handle school work designed for children of similar age.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stanford-Binet+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Standardization
Assume a professor is interested in the satisfaction of students in her psychology class. She decides to survey the students by asking them to rate the class from one to five. From the surveys, she calculates the average score to be three. From this she can assume that people's satisfaction was average. Wanting to know more she decides to calculate the standard deviation and finds it to be equal to two--meaning, the amount of variability between the numbers was 2. This means that most scores were either a one or a five (thus producing the average of three), showing that students were either very satisfied with her class or very dissatisfied with her class (they gave ratings of 1 or 5 most frequently). By obtaining a measure of variability, she was able to understand more about how people felt with the class than she would of with just an average score. This is one of the reasons why standard deviation (and variability) is so important.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Standard+Deviationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=S-R+Approach+%28Contiguity%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Split-Half+Reliabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatic+Nervous+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Normshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Signal+Detection+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Short-Term+Memory
For example, it used to be that men and women had very specific roles such as, the man went to work to earn money and the woman stayed home to keep the house and raise the children. These were roles that were sex-specific and were determined by the society and the time period.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sex+Roleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sex+Differenceshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self+Monitoringhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Esteemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Actualizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schizophreniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schemahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=RodsAnterograde Amnesia, is when an individual cannot retain any information after the traumatic event.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retroactive+Amnesia
See also: Proactive Interference]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retroactive+Interferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affective+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Affecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Abnormal+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acute+Schizophreniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achievement+testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Statisticshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=State-Dependent+Retrieval+%28State+Dependent+Learning+And+State+Dependent+Memory%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retrievalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relative+Size
Imagine I want to teach my dog to sit on command. When I tell him to sit and he does, I give him a treat. Giving the treat increases the probability that he will sit the next time I tell him to sit.

Check out the definitions for Positive Reinforcement and Negative Reinforcement, as well as our Learning and Conditioning topics page for more information.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reconditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reaction+Formationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rangehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Random+Assignmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Actor-Observer+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Quasi+Experimental+Designhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pupilhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Punishment+%28Positive+Punishment%29
Psychosurgery has a long history and may have started as far back as 40,000 years ago when it was done to get rid of demons or the "stone of madness" (it was believed that there was some little part of the brain responsible for mental illness so if you just cut that part out you cured the patient). In 1894 the first "rational" (or scientific) psychosurgery was conducted by a Swiss surgeon. Today psychosurgery is still done but it's radically different; today it involves lasers, very precise work on specific areas of the brain, and can be done without opening the skull. More information about psychosurgery is available at: http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n02/historia/psicocirg_i.htm]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychosurgery
For example, many people experience stomach pains when they are dealing with a stressful mental situation (e.g., getting all worked up before a really important test). These stomach pains are absolutely real, as are the chemical reactions occurring in the body as a result of the person's thought process (thinking about the test). But, the stomach pains are not caused by some stomach infection or air born virus, but rather the process of thinking about the stressful event which in turn triggers all sorts of chemical and biological events to happen and eventually cause the stomach pain. Remember, psychosomatic pains, illnesses, etc. are very real, but are brought on by thought or the mind rather than bacteria, injury, etc.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychosomatic
The first stage is called the Oral Stage, characterized by a preoccupation with oral pleasures such as nursing and sucking. This is followed by the Anal Stage, where the main focus is on eliminating or retaining feces. The third stage is the Phallic Stage, where children derive pleasure from the genitals, and develop a desire for the opposite sex parent. Society dictates that these inappropriate feelings be repressed, and when done successfully, is followed by the Latency Stage where sexual urges lie dormant until the next stage.

The last stage is the Genital Stage, when sexual desires reawaken and are directed towards peers of the opposite sex. At each stage, conflicts must come to a successful resolution. Otherwise, it results in fixations that may cause psychological problems in the future.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychosexual+Stages+of+Development
Wow - what does all that mean? In a nutshell, Freud was saying that when we have memories, impulses, desires, and thoughts that are too difficult or unacceptable to deal with, we unconsciously exclude them from our consciousness (some people like to say we "push" them down from our consciousness to our uncosciousness). This is similar to suppression with one key difference - suppression is a conscious exclusion (or "pushing" down) of these painful memories, thoughts, etc., and is more similar to Freud's explaination of condemnation.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Repression+%28repressed+memory%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychopathologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychoanalysishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prototypehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prepositional+Reasoninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Projective+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Predictive+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preconventional+Levelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Post-Traumatic+Stress+Disorder+%28PTSD%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Postconventional+Levelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positron+Emission+Tomography+%28PET%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ponshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pleasure+Principlehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pituitary+Glandhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phonemeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phobiashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phallic+Stagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personality+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peripheral+Nervous+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Performance+Appraisalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Peak+Experiencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parietal+Lobehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parasympathetic+Nervous+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Paraphiliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parallel+Distributed+Processing+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Panic+Attackhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rapid+Eye+Movement+Sleep+%28REM%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reliabilityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retinahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reticular+Activating+System
See also: Retroactive Interference]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proactive+Interferencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Priminghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preoperational+Stage
For example, most children like to watch television--this is a behavior that happens reliably (they learn to like TV all on their own and it is something they will do willingly without any interference from their parents)--and parents often use this behavior to reinforce something children like to do less such as washing dishes. So, some parents might condition children to wash dishes by rewarding dish washing with watching television. I'm not saying that is the right thing to do, only that it is an example of the Premack Principle.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Premack+Principlehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Othello+Effect+%28Othelloe+Theory%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Oral+Stagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Optic+Nervehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Opponent+Process+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Normal+Curvehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nonverbal+Cueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nodes+of+Ranvierhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Night+Terrorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurotransmittersaxon (the tail), the soma (the body), and the dendrites (the branch-like arms that stem from the soma).

You can see an example of a neuron at: http://www.alleydog.com/images/2neurons.gif]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neuronshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nervous+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+State+Reliefhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative+Afterimagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Needshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nearsightednesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=NarcolepsyDissociative Identity Disorder -- is a personality disorder where an individual seems to possess more than one personality. People who suffer from this disorder generally have gone through traumatic childhood experiences that have caused the formation of more than one personality in order to psychologically escape from their situation. A high percentage of people who suffer from this disorder have been sexually abused as a child. Also, many people mistakenly refer to people with MPD as schizophrenics, but they are completely different disorders.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multiple+Personality+Disorder
Why do you eat? Why do you drink? What makes you do anything? The answer is motivation; a process that acts, guides, and maintains behaviors. For example, when you have not eaten for a period of time, you will eventually start having the feeling of hunger, which motivates you to eat something, and thus reduce the feelings of hunger. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motivationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Morphemes
See also: Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moral+Developmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operant+Conditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acrophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Oedipus+Complexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Occipital+Lobehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Obsessive-Compulsive+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Observational+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Object+Permanencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Objective+Testshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Obesityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Obediencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mood+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Modeling+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=ModelingCentral Tendency which is defined by the most common number in an array. For example, the following string of numbers: 1, 3, 3, 3, 56, 89, 89; the mode in this case would be 3 since it is the most frequent number observed in the sample.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Modehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mitosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Minnesota+Multiphasic+Personality+Inventory+%28MMPI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Midbrainhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Microexpressionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=MedullaCentral Tendency that is defined as the midpoint in an array of numbers. The median for 1, 6, 102, 1000 and 1,323 would be 102. If the array has an uneven number of scores, the midpoint is the average of the two numbers closest to the middle. For example, for the array 1, 2, 3, 4, the median would be 2.5.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=MedianCentral Tendency which is more commonly known as an "average." The average or mean is calculated by adding all scores and then dividing by the number of scores. For example, the mean of 3, 5, and 1 is 3.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Meanmood disorder characterized by extreme sadness, lethargy, sleep disturbances, pessimistic thinking, and loss of interest in life. Although depression can occur normally after a traumatic event (such as the death of a loved one) or a medical condition (like thyroid problems) major depression is different in that it occurs in a long lasting fashion and isn't necessarily caused by life events.

To be diagnosed with major depression you must present 5 or more symptoms for longer than 2 weeks. The symptoms must be present almost every day and occur for most of the day. Major depressive symptoms are: depressed mood, reduced interest and pleasure, weight loss or gain because of altered appetite, sleep disturbances, altered behaviors (like restlessness), fatigue, feelings of guilt or weakness, decision making problems, and thoughts of death or suicide.

Treatment for major depression varies between individuals and typically includes therapy, medication, or a combination of the two. Also, when people use the general term, Depression, they are actually referring to Major Depression.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Major+Depressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Magnetic+Resonance+Imaging+%28MRI%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Learning+%28Conditioning%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Latent+Learning
Freud believed that the latent content was somehow censored by the subconscious which was a way to protect us from the real meanings of the dreams. This was necessary because the dream content may be difficult for people to deal with, so people disguise the real meaning. However, Freud believed that when people were in conflict, if he could uncover or get to the latent content, then he could identify the person's problem and resolve their conflict.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Latent+Contenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Latencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Languagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kinesthesis+%28Kinesthetic+Sense%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Just-World+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Monocular+Cueshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=James-Lange+Theory+of+Emotionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Iris
See also: Extrinsic Motivation]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intrinsic+Motivation
Intimacy refers to a spectrum of emotional and physical closeness between individuals. Colloquially used it generally refers to a sexual relationship although in a broader sense it can mean a relationship in which people feel free to express deep thoughts and feelings.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intimacyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interaction+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intensityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intelligence+Quotient+%28IQ%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intelligencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Integrityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Instinct

Insomnia is not as common as people often like to think. When you are having sleep problems toward the end of the semester for a week, this is not really insomnia. True insomnia occurs for extended periods of time and causes devastating effects on those who suffer from it. One of the big problems with sleep is that the more anxious you are, the less likely you will be to sleep.


What often happens with sleep difficulties and insomnia is that a person has some problems falling asleep, they then begin to worry that the sleep problems will continue. Then when they go to bed, they are anticipating having sleep problems, they become anxious, and sure enough, they are unable to relax and fall asleep. It is a viscous cycle, and unfortunately, one of the ways to solve it is to reduce tension and stress; the exact things that result from the problems sleeping then cause additional sleep problems. Yikes!]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Insomnia
Related Term: Insight Learning]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Insighthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Insanehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inner+Ear
Membership in groups can change over time so in-group bias can often be witnessed as having an 'ebb and flow' nature over time. An example would be in an election. Early on, members within one political party typically argue with each other and split into factions supporting different candidates within the same party. They can exhibit stereotypical thinking and negative behaviors towards the other group. But over time, after one candidate is selected to run, typically the members of the party fuse back into one group who supports their party's candidate and their in-group bias shifts towards the opposing party's candidate.

Some theories that explain in-group bias include the Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT), which posits conflict over shared resources is what fosters in-group bias, and Social Identity Theory, which proposes creation of distinct individual identities along with a cultural identity increases the likelihood of this bias. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ingroup+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Informational+Social+Influencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Industrial+and+Organizational+Psychology+%28I%2FO+Psychology%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Independent+Variablehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Incentiveshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Imprintinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Imagery
An example of this could be looking at the relationship between washing your car and rainstorms. We all know intellectually that washing your car has no real effect on the frequency of rainstorms but it frequently seems that it rains shortly after washing your car. This may seem as if it is correlated but this is most likely because we are better able to recall those times when it rains on our clean car because we get frustrated and take note of the situation. We are less likely to remember the times we wash our car and it doesn't rain - this situation is less memorable and less likely to stand out in our memory. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Illusory+Correlationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=I-Knew-It-All-Along+Phenomenon+%28Hindsight+Bias%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Idiot+Savanthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identificationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Identical+TwinsFreud, humans have three main components to their personality that cause us to behave the way we do and make us who we are. One of these components, the id, is the part that you may consider that little devil sitting on your shoulder trying to get you to do all those things that feel good, even if they are wrong. More specifically, the id is the part of the human personality that is made up of all our inborn biological urges that seeks out immediate gratification (guided by the Pleasure Principle), regardless of social values or consequences.

For example, when you are in a bar and see a really attractive person who stirs some sexual feelings in you, the id is what is pushing you to simply go over to this person, grab them, and ravage them right there. Of course you know that this is completely unacceptable behavior so you don't do it, but the id doesn't care about that. It just wants what it wants no matter what.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Idhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Iconic+Memory
For example, if I am conducting a study on the effects of different drugs on pain relief, it would be bad to hypothesize that "one drug will have an effect on pain." What the heck does that mean? How can you test to find out if that is true? A better hypothesis might be, "Drug A (whatever that is in that study) will reduce the amount of pain significantly more than Drug B according to participants' ratings of pain using the Pain Intensity Scale."

Related term of interest: Null Hypothesis.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypothesishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypothalamushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypochondriasis
People often believe that a hypnotist can make you do things you would never do, like take your clothes off and run around a crowded room naked. If you would not do this when you are not hypnotized, then you would not do it when you are hypnotized. However, if there is some part of you that would....well then, that may be a different story.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hypnosishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Humanistic+Perspective+%28Humanistic+Psychology%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Huehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hospicehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hormoneshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Homeostasis
Let's take an IQ test as an example of a histogram. The scores would appear along the X axis (the bottom/horizontal axis) and the frequency would appear along the Y axis. We might have a range of IQ scores on the X axis from 50 to 200 and a bar at each class (each score) representing how many people received that score on the IQ test. Each bar would touch the other bars next to it to show that there is no gap between the scores.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Histogramhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=HippocampusAbraham Maslow, humans have certain needs that must be fulfilled for healthy living. These needs motivate us to act the way we do, and in particular, in ways that satisfy the needs that are not yet fulfilled. In addition, Maslow suggested that these needs are not all equally important, but exist in a hierarchy (shaped like a pyramid), with the most important, basic needs at the bottom.

The Hierarchy of needs is often presented as a pyramid. Forming the base are the Physiological Needs that are essential for survival. This includes the need for oxygen, water, and food. It is only when these lower-level needs are met to some degree that one can move up to fulfill other needs. The second level is composed of Safety and Security needs, which includes finding stability and an environment where one is safe from harm. This might mean finding a stable job, having a house in a safe neighborhood, or having some money in the bank. The third level refers to Love and Belonging Needs. This might mean having a partner or spouse, friends, family, a church group, or other support network. The fourth level is composed of Esteem Needs, which may include the need for recognition, respect, dignity, confidence, and a sense of achievement. This might mean finishing a college degree, passing the bar exams, or getting ahead in one's career. The fifth and highest level of needs is the need for Self-Actualization - the continuous need to fulfill one's potential and be the best person one can possibly be.

People who are self-actualized tend to have more "peak experiences" than those who are not. Peak experiences refer to high points in one's life - moments of extreme joy, euphoria, love, or rapture - these are defining moments when one feels whole, fully alive and in complete harmony with the universe.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hierarchy+of+Needshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heuristic
Also, keep in mind that genes and environment do not occur in isolation, but interact with each other. As a result, you are who you are, and you act and think the ways you do because of the combination of your heritability and your environment.

Related: Heritability Estimates]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Heritability
The APA defines Health Psychology (division 38) in the following way: "Health Psychology seeks to advance contributions of psychology to the understanding of health and illness through basic and clinical research, education, and service activities and encourages the integration of biomedical information about health and illness with current psychological knowledge." For additional information about Health Psychology you can visit the "official" health psychology website located at: http://www.health-psych.org/]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Health+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hallucinogenshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Groupinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Group+Polarizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Good-Patient+Rolehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gestalt+Therapy
Gestalt is the basis of Gestalt Psychology, which is the study of how people integrate and organize perceptual information (information they perceive - things they see, hear, etc) into meaningful wholes.

For example, can you tell what this is?: 8> )

The reason you may be able to recognize a face is because you're able to see an overall form (a face) just by putting a few symbols or shapes together. In other words, you see the Gestalt, not just the symbols. This is incredibly useful but can sometimes lead to problems such as illusions or visual tricks.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gestalthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Germinal+Stagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genotypehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genital+Stage
BUT, it is important to know that having a certain genetic code does not necessarily mean that is who we will become. Rather, there is a difference between all the genes we have (genotype) and the genes that are actually expressed (phenotype). Plus, environment is absolutely crucial in determining who we are and who we become.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genetic+Codehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Geneshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Generativityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Generalized+Anxiety+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Generalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=General+Intelligencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=General+Experimental+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=General+Adaptation+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+Schema+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+Identityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Genderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gate-Control+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fundamental+Attribution+Errorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Functional+Fixedness
The DSM criteria for Dissociative Fugue are:

1. The main disturbance is sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's customary place of work, with inability to recall one's past.

2. Confusion about personal identity or assumption of a new identity (partial or complete).

3. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of Dissociative Identity Disorder and is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (for example, a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition (for example, temporal lobe epilepsy).

4. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fuguehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frustration-Aggression+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frontal+Lobeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frequency+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frequency+Distributionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Frequencyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Free+Associationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fraternal+Twinshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Framinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Foveahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Formal+Operational+Stagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Forensic+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fluid+Intelligencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Flashbulb+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fixed-Ratio+Schedulehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fixed-Interval+Schedulehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Groupthinkhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fixationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Factor+Analysis
See also: Intrinsic Motivation]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extrinsic+Motivationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extinction+%28operant+extinction%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=External+Locus+of+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimental+Conditionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Figure-Groundhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fetushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Feature+Detectorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Family+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Experimenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endorphinshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Endocrine+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encounter+Groupshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Encodinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empiricism
For instance, you are looking at a situation from the perspective of the other individual. In emotional empathy, you are able to physically feel what the other person is going through. For example, you also feel sad and become teary-eyed when your friend is talking about her problem. In empathic concern, you become compassionate and effortlessly sense what someone needs from you. For instance, a mother can easily sense if her son is scared and needs comfort. Also, efficient leaders can keenly perceive whether an employee needs to take a break or to be pushed further. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Empathyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Emotionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Embryohttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electroencephalogram+%28EEG%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Electroconvulsive+Therapy+%28ECT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interneuronhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=EgocentrismFreud, the ego is the part of personality that helps us deal with reality by mediating between the demands of the id, superego, and the environment. The ego prevents us from acting on every urge we have (produced by the id) and being so morally driven that we can't function properly.

The ego works according to the Reality Principle which helps us direct our unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges to more acceptable targets. For example, when you walk down the street and see an extremely attractive person, the ego, working on the reality principle, helps us realize that it is not socially acceptable to cross the street, grab the person, and have sex with them. Instead, the ego tells us that there will be other, more appropriate people, places, and times to fulfill these needs.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Egohttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Effortful+Processinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Echoic+MemoryRene Descartes that the human mind and body are two distinct entities that interact with each other to make a person. Descartes reasoned that the mind and the body communicate with each other through a small structure at the base of the brain called the pineal gland.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dualismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DSMhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Drivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Down+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Estrogenhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Equilibriumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Episodic+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Double-Blind+Procedurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dissociative+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dissociationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Discriminationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Differentiationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Difference+Thresholdhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Developmental+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Internal+Locus+of+Controlhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depth+Perceptionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Depressantshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dependent+Variable+%28DV%29neurons that extend from the cell body (Soma). The dendrites receive neural impulses (electrical and chemical signals) from the axons of other neurons. The signal always travels in the same direction - the signal comes into the neuron through the dendrites, through the cell body (soma), to the axon, and then out the terminal buttons to the dendrites of the next neuron. In this way information travels all around your body by going from neuron to neuron.

You can see an image of an axon (as well as two neurons) by going to: http://www.alleydog.com/images/2neurons.gif]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dendrite
See also: Delusional Disorders]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delusionshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Delta+Wavehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deja+Vuhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SociobiologyTrichromatic Theory, this is a theory of color and how humans perceive color. According to this theory, the human retina contains three different receptors for color (meaning each one is most sensitive to one color): one is most sensitive to red, one is most sensitive to green, and one is most sensitive to blue. These color receptors combine the colors to produce the perception of virtually any color. You notice that there are no receptors specific to orange, but by stimulating the right cones in the right way, orange color is produced.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Young-Helmholtz+Trichromatic+%28three+Color%29+Theory
For example, if you are buying a new computer that costs $1,000 and you want to add more memory that increases the and the price $200 (a 20% increase), you might consider this too much additional money to spend. However, if you were buying a $300,000 house a $200 feature may seem like nothing. It might take an additional $10,000 to make you stop and think if it's too much to spend. In this example, the amount stays the same ($200), but the proportion changes and that's what makes the perceptual difference.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Webers+Lawhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Encodinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Visual+Capturehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Type+B+Personality
See also: Type A Behavior Pattern]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Type+A+Personalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Two-Word+Stagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Two-Factor+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Displacementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Transductionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Trait+%28Personality+Trait%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Tolerancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+Yhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theory+X
The first thing you must remember is that psychology is a science. As such it is based on observable events and the scientific method. But there are so many different events and facts about behavior that trying to make sense of everything is simply not realistic. So, we use theories to help organize lots of different observable events, make sense of them, make predictions about them, and connect them to some more comprehensive principles.

In essence, theories explain observable events in a meaningful way. Keep in mind that theories are not as specific as hypotheses, which are so specific that we use them to make predictions in research. Theories are more general explanations about behavior and events.

For example, if I see many people scream in pain when they touch a flame, I could theorize that extreme heat causes pain (that's a tough one, eh?).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thematic+Apperception+Test+%28TAT%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=THChttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Textural+Gradienthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Testosterone
It can be in the form of harmful drugs or chemicals, like birth control pills, nicotine, alcohol, or some types of medication. Exposure to infectious agents like German Measles or Chicken Pox has also been found to have teratogenic effects. Physical factors such as exposure to x-rays or increased body temperature from taking hot baths may also have negative effects on the developing fetus. Certain medical conditions of the mother like diabetes or hypothyroidism may also lead to defects or fetal death.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Teratogenhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Temperamenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Telegraphic+Speechhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Task+Leadershiphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Systematic+Desensitizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Syntaxhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sympathetic+Nervous+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Surveyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Superordinate+Goalshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Subliminalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sublimationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stranger+Anxietyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Storagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulantshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stereotype)]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Statistical+Significancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spontaneous+Recoveryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Split+Brain
As you can guess, this means that cramming for an exam the night before is not as effective as studying material each night over a week or some period of time. There's one caveat - this holds true for material you want to store for a long time (i.e., really store it in memory), whereas cramming can work to store information for short periods of time.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spacing+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Somatoform+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Loafinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Leadershiphttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Facilitationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Exchange+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Clockhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sleep+Apneahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Skinner+Boxhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Skeletal+Nervous+SystemMost people would say they see 5 dollar signs followed by 5 number 8's, and 5 exclamation points. But why not see this as 15 items that mean nothing together, or random symbols and numbers? The reason is that we group similar items together to try and make sense of them or find some pattern.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Similarityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Response+Cyclehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Orientationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sexual+Dysfunction
Proponents of this theory encourage individuals to stay at their body's set point and to accept it despite social pressures to be thin. They believe that the reason people have difficulty losing or gaining weight is because their weight goals are outside of their set point range.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Set+PointPrimacy Effect.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Serial+Position+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Neuronshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Interactionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Cortexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory+Adaptationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=SemanticsEncoding, by clicking here.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Semantic+Encodinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Self-Disclosurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Selective+Attentionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary+Sex+Characteristicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary+Reinforcer
A scatterplot does not identify variables as dependent or independent, as any type of variable can be plotted on either axis.

The scatterplot is used to determine the three most common kinds of relationships: positive or rising, negative or falling, and no relationship. For example, in order to determine the relationship of water consumption and jogging, a researcher could select a group of participants to find out how much water is consumed (first variable plotted on y-axis) and how long has each participant has been jogging (second variable to be plotted on the x-axis). If a participant consumes 50 ounces and jogs for 45 minutes, this would be represented by one dot plotted at coordinates (50, 45).

After all the participants' dots have been plotted, the researcher can see a visual representation of the kind of relationship or association that exists between the two variables.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Scatterplothttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Scapegoat+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Savant+Syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rorschach+Inkblot+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rooting+Reflexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rolehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Retinal+Disparityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reticular+Formation
Functions of respondent behavior include protecting the body against harmful stimuli, regulating the internal balance and economy of the organism, and promoting reproduction. Other examples of human respondent behaviors are sexual arousal and sweating while running.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Respondent+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Resistance
Just to provide one example, let's look at the Gambler's Fallacy. This is a person's belief that the probability of an item changes based on previous attempts when in reality, the probability remains the same. If a coin was flipped 10 times, and each time it landed with the "heads" side facing up, someone relying on gambler's fallacy would believe the odds of it being heads the 11th time would be very low. In reality, however, the probability has not changed. The chances of a coin being heads or tails is 50% no matter how many times the coin is flipped.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Representativeness+Heuristichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Replicationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=REM+Sleephttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=REM+Reboundhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relative+Motionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relative+Deprivationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Relative+Brightnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reinforcerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rehearsalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Regression+Toward+the+Meanhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Regressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Refractory+Periodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reflexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recognition
This process of deindividuation can have powerful effects. For example, how can soldiers kill innocent children? They often answer this question by saying that they are not monsters, but that they were going along with the group and that they were just following orders, and that they were not the only ones doing it....all engaged in heinous acts of violence because, in part, they had become deindividuated.

See also: Individuation]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Deindividuationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reciprocal+Determinismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Recallhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reality+Principlehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Rationalizationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Random+Samplehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pubertyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychotic+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychotherapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychophysiological+Illnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychophysicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychopharmacologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychological+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychological+Dependencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Proximity
Alcohol, caffeine, LSD, heroin, and Xanax are all examples of psychoactive drugs, and each drug has different effects on mental and physical functioning. For example, caffeine promotes wakefulness and boosts work performance, whereas alcohol reduces alertness and performance (along with inhibitions). Whether taken recreationally or for therapeutic purposes, psychoactive drugs can be habit forming and some carry a risk of dependence. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychoactive+Drughttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prosocial+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Projectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+Sex+Characteristicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Prejudicehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Preconscious
These statements need to be in a positive form and not be negative. For example, the statement, "You will no longer have nightmares" is a negative statement because it states what is not wanted. On the other hand, "You will sleep peacefully with pleasant dreams," is a positive statement because it states what is wanted. Statements should also be a behavior that the person wants because a person will resist any compulsion (no matter if it is under hypnosis or not) if he or she does not want to do it. Likewise, hypnosis cannot force someone do anything against their moral code.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Posthypnotic+Suggestionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Posthypnotic+Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Populationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Polygraphhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Plasticityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Place+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Pitchhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phobic+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phi+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Personality+Inventoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Person-Centered+Therapy
For example, in a classic study do groups of people were either shown a series of numbers or of letters. After this the participants were shown a visually ambiguous image that could be interpreted as either the number 13 or the letter B. The participants who viewed the letters previously were more likely to see the letter B while the participants who viewed the numbers were more likely to say the image was the number 13. Emotions influence our perceptual set in that people who are in an angry mood are more likely to perceive anger and hostility in others and ignore non-hostile behaviors. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceptual+Sethttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceptual+Constancyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Perceptual+Adaptationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Passionate+Lovehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Partial+Reinforcementhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parietalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parapsychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Parallel+Processinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overjustification+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Overconfidencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Crystallized+Intelligencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cross-Sectional+Studyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Critical+Periodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Criterionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Counterconditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Correlation+Coefficient
This fact was an important component in the court cases against the tobacco companies that occurred in the late 1990's. The studies conducted previously on the effects of smoking indicated a positive correlation between smoking and cancer. This means that the studies found that as the rate of smoking increased, so did the occurrence of cancer; smoking goes up, presence of cancer goes up. BUT, this does not demonstrate that smoking causes cancer (does anyone disagree that it does?), only that there is a relationship between the two factors.

See also: Positive Correlation and Negative Correlation]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Correlationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Corpus+Callosumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Coronary+Heart+Diseasehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conversion+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Convergencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Control+Condition+%28control+group%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Continuous+Reinforcement
The other four principles are known as Proximity, Similarity, Closure, and Connectedness.

In mathematics the principle of continuity, as introduced by Gottfried Leibniz, is a heuristic principle based on the work of Cusa and Kepler. Leibniz used this principle to extend the concepts of arithmetic operations all the way from ordinary numbers to infinitesimals, laying the groundwork for infinitesimal calculus.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Continuityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contiguityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conservationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Consciousnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Opiateshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operational+DefinitionOperant Conditioning and Classical Conditioning. Within each of these are types of learning. Operant behavior (which goes along with operant conditioning) refers to behavior that "operates" on the environment or is controllable by the individual.

Operant behavior is done because it produces some type of consequence. For example, you are probably familiar with Pavlov's dog (classical conditioning) in which the dog salivated in response to meet powder. The dog couldn't control the salivation...that's classical conditioning. However, if the dog understood that by coming when called it would receive a treat, then it would be engaging in operant behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operant+Behaviorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=One-Word+Stagehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Occipitalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Normshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Normative+Social+Influencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neurotic+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neural+Networkshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Neural+Disordershttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nerveshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nerve+Deafnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Need+to+Belonghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Near+Death+Experiencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Nature-Nurture+Issuehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Naturalistic+Observationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Myelinhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motor+Neuronshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motor+Cortexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mood-Congruent+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Monismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mnemonicshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Misinformation+Effect+%28false+memory%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Middle+Earhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Metabolic+Ratehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mere+Exposure+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Sethttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Retardationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mental+Agehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Menopausehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Menarche
A clinician practicing the medical model would first identify the patient's symptoms. Symptoms can be grouped together in order to identify a possible syndrome and give the patient a diagnosis. For example, Schizophrenia can be easily diagnosed using the medical model because it is a biological disease. The clinician would note the symptoms (delusions, hallucinations) and other biological considerations (family members with schizophrenia- there is a genetic predisposition) and make a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Treatment options (medication, therapy) would then be considered. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Medical+Modelhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Maturationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Manifest+Contentbipolar disorder, also known as manic depression in which people swing from being depressed to being manic (being in a state of mania). Often times people who are manic indicated enjoying the state and getting a sense of pleasure from it since during the state they are so optimistic and energetic.

I once had an instructor in college who had periods of mania in which he insisted he was more productive than any other time in his life. However, it is common for people in a state of mania to produce things that are very poor quality or don't make sense. For example someone may write for 3 days straight during a manic state and believe they wrote the greatest thing in the world, but you would look at it and think it was garbage or didn't make sense at all (this is not always the case but it does occur).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Maniahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Major+Depressive+Disorder
Blood tests that show Lymphocyte numbers as higher than normal usually mean the presence of a virus infection. For example, when someone has AIDS (acute immune deficiency syndrome) or HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection, the T cells are destroyed by the invading virus until the body cannot protect itself from other infections. This person is vulnerable to getting very sick even from the common cold because T lymphocytes are not available to provide the needed protection.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lymphocyteshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=LSDhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Longitudinal+Studyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Long-Term+Potentiation+%28LTP%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lobotomy+%28Prefrontal+Lobotomy%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lithium+Carbonatehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Linear+Perspective
James Olds and Peter Milner discovered the function of the limbic system accidentally in 1954 when experimenting with electrical stimulation of the brain using rats and lever pressing. They found that when they stimulated this area of the brain while the rats pressed the lever, it produced pleasure and in response, the rats kept pressing the lever to continue getting pleasure (they pressed the lever thousands of times an hour). You can see a picture of the limbic system at: http://www.psyweb.com/Brain/brainl0.html]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Limbic+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lesionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Lenshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Just+Noticeable+Differencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Interpositionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Intelligence+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Individualismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Implicit+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Hindsight+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Habituationpersonality trait which is encompassed by a passion and resilience to achieve one's goals. Overcoming obstacles and hardiness are also components of this personality trait. A gritty personality could also be described as ambitious, tenacious, and having perseverance. High achievers and successful people who have overcome obstacles are often described as having grit especially if they come from humble origins. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Grithttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender-Typinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Gender+Rolehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Foot-In-The-Door+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Fetal+Alcohol+Syndrome+%28FAS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Feel-Good%2C+Do-Good+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=False+Consensus+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Explicit+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Evolutionary+Psychology+%28Evolutionary+Perspective%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DSM-5https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Drive+Reduction+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=DNAhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Culturehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Critical+Thinkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Creativityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Content+Validity
The concept of the defense mechanism was popularized by Freud and the psychoanalytic perspective. There are several different types of defense mechanisms including repression, regression, denial (my personal favorite), projection, compensation, sublimation, reaction formation, rationalization, and hallucination. To find additional information about defense mechanisms go to: http://scholars.nus.edu.sg/landow/victorian/science/freud/defense_mechanisms.htm]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Defense+Mechanismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Connectednesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conflicthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cones
For example, the worried parents of a 3 year old felt that he was progressively not paying attention when they talked to him. They felt he was ignoring them or purposely misbehaving, but a complete physical exam revealed the presence of a benign tumor that almost completely blocked his right ear canal. Conduction Deafness can be reversed and hearing restored once the blockage is removed or the injury treated.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conduction+Deafnesshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Collectivismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biological+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Binocular+Cues
For example, members of the Jonestown cult made a public admission of their loyalty to Jim Jones by selling all their possessions and following him to Guyana. Even though they later experienced irrational manipulation and abuse, they stayed to the point of committing mass suicide when he told them to do so.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Belief+Perseverance
An example of this could be an researcher studying the affect of prayer on illness. A completely open-minded researcher will gather data and then come to a conclusion based purely on the data collected, while a highly religious person may interpret the data in favor of prayer as a factor in healing, while an atheist may discount pro-prayer data.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Belief-Bias+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aversive+Conditioning

This phenomenon is what makes the marketing process of "branding" work. A company makes a slogan or logo and shows it to you over and over again, until that company comes to your mind easily. You may not have any particular preference for the brand, but the marketing people count on your familiarity with the name alone to sell the product.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Availability+Heuristichttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Autonomic+Nervous+Systemhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Automatic+Processinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Auditionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attribution+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attachmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Associative+Learninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Association+Areashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Artificial+Intelligencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aptitude+Testhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aphasiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amygdalahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amphetamineshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Amnesiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alzheimer%27s+Diseasehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Altruismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alpha+Waves
1) Have you been hit on the head? If yes, seek medical attention; if no, go to next step.
2) Have you taken a pain reliever? If no, take one now; if yes go to next step.
3) Have you eaten today? … and so on until it would end with wither a solution or advice to seek medical attention.

Algorithms often take the form of a graph with a square for each step and arrows pointing to the possible directions from each step.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Algorithm
Age regression also attempts to find behavior triggers, repressed memories, and other information that is not readily available to the conscious mind. This technique, however, is not infallible, in that it can also cause clients to exhibit "false" or "planted" memories that they believe to be real but are not. Controversially, this technique (usually by hypnosis) is also used by some practitioners as a means of accessing "past-life" memories as evidence of reincarnation. More research data is needed in order to fully understand this technique and gauge its effectiveness and reliability. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Age+Regression
During aerobic exercise people often attempt to reach a target heart rate (an elevated heart rate) and maintain that rate/pace throughout the exercise session. Some of its benefits are having extra energy, agility, and other physical and psychological benefits.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aerobic+Exercise
For instance, you may live on a small amount of money, say, $1,000 per month. You may think "if I had more money I would always be able to pay all my bills and still buy other things." Then you get a big raise and you start making $3,000 per month. At first this would be a very exciting new experience. After a while, however, when all the new income has been allotted to pay some bill, you might again start to think, "if I had more money.... " You had a new situation, you adapted to it, and it became your normal.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Adaptation-Level+Phenomenonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Active+Listeninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquisitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acoustic+Encoding
For example, employees who are Achievement-Motivated thrive very well in corporations where they receive regular performance evaluations. They feel energized and satisfied with their jobs because goals are set, they are given positive or negative feedback on past behaviors and given some type of rewards if they performed well.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Achievement+Motivationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acetylcholinehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Absolute+Thresholdhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Door-in-the-Face+Techniquehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychiatristhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Counterbalancehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Face+Validityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Identity+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Roleshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social+Role+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Kin+Selectionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychosocial+Developmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eroshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thanatoshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensorimotor+Stage+of+Developmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Contexthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cathexishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Metacognitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Congruencehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Constructive+Recallhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Phrenologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extraneous+Variablehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Long-Term+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Procedural+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Placebo+%28placebo+effect%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Xenophobiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Zeitgeist
An example of this is an athlete who performs better under real game situation than he/she does during practice games. There is more arousal (stress, excitement) during the real games which increases their performance. But, if the pressure becomes too much, their performance can decrease (e.g., missing an easy shot with time running out and losing the game -- choking!).]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Yerkes-Dodson+Law+Of+Arousalhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=XYY+syndromehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Association+Theory
From a behavioral perspective, an association is the forming of a learned connection between a stimulus and a response, or between one stimulus and another. For a more comprehensive understanding of this, you should take a look at conditioning definitions such as conditioned response, conditioned stimulus, etc.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Associationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anxiety+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aggressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Action+Potentialhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Functionalismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Dysphoriahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Declarative+Memoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conformity
For example, I know someone who says that all Republicans are only concerned with healing the upper class at the expense of those who are not wealthy. He likes to identify Republican politicians who try to pass, for example, tax laws that help the upper class, which confirms his position. However, when some Republican politician proposes a law that favors those in the lower socioeconomic class, he says that it is just a smoke screen -- that they know it will never pass and only do it to make themselves look like they care when they actually don't.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Confirmation+Biashttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cone+Receptorconditioned response or CR) when the "beep" occurs. Once the beep has the capacity to elicit the salivation, it is now considered a conditioned stimulus (CS).

See also: Conditioning]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioned+Stimulus
For example, a dog salivates (UR) from the smell of a bone (US) naturally, without any conditioning. Once some neutral stimulus (CS) (for example, a "beep" that the dog would not naturally or normally cause the dog to salivate) has been paired with the bone for some time, the dog will salivate (CR) when the "beep" occurs.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioned+Response+%28CR%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Concrete+Operational+Stage+of+Developmenthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Concepthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Companionate+Lovehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Color+Constancyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Collective+Unconscioushttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cohorthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Perspectivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Map
For example, if you are a pacifist, but punched someone, there is inconsistency -- you think you should be passive, but you became angry enough to punch someone -- which would likely produce tension (you would feel discomfort from this - "how could I do this" ..." I don't believe in violence" ...etc.). You may reduce this tension by claiming that you don't believe in violence, EXCEPT in certain circumstances, like this one! In Festinger's classic study of dissonance, people who had engaged in a boring task for along period of time had to tell the next participant who was going to engage in the same task that it was actually a lot of fun (dissonance = telling a lie, but most people do not view themselves as liars).

Participants were either paid $1 or $20 for engaging in the boring task. It turned out that people who were paid $1 told the biggest lies - they said the task was great, so much fun, etc...while the people paid $20 said it wasn't so great. Why? How can someone who just did a boring task for along time, and got paid so little for doing it, tell someone else how much fun it was?

They change their attitude to actually believe that they DID enjoy the task. The people who received $20 didn't have to justify anything - the task was boring, but you get paid $20, so who cares. There is little or no dissonance in the $20 situation.

Check our in-depth Cognitive Dissonance section for more about this theory, key people, factors, how to reduce dissonance, opposition to cognitive dissonance theory, and more. ]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Dissonance+Theory
This is similar to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, but this is a cognitive theory...it's based on cognitive challenges and cognitive advancements by the child which allow them to overcome the challenges. After each new stage is reached, there is a plateau during which the child/person is able to think in new and more advanced ways. For example, an infant can't think in abstract terms like you can because you have reached a more advanced stage of cognitive development and a higher stage in Piaget's theory.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive+Developmental+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cochleahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Coactorshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Closurehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Clinical+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Classical+Conditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Circadian+Rhythmshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chunkinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Chromosomeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebellumhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cerebral+Cortexhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Central+Nervous+System+%28CNS%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cell+Assemblyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catharsishttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Catatonic+Schizophrenia
A large donut-shaped x-ray machine takes x-ray pictures at several different angles around the body. These images are processed by a computer to create cross-sectional pictures of the body. In each of these pictures the body is seen as an x-ray "slice" of the body, which is recorded on a film. It's like looking at a loaf of bread that has been sliced up--you can see the whole thing and also remove slices and see the entire slice and everything inside of it. If you want more info about CAT Scans, you can go to: http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?ArticleKey=2647]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=CAT+Scan+%28Computerized+Tomography+And+CT+Scan%29+https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Case+Studyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cardinal+Traithttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cannon-Bard+Theoryhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bystander+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Burnouthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bulimia+Nervosahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brocas+Areamedulla (responsible for functions such as respiration), and the reticular formation, which acts like a bridge; it allows information to pass back and forth from one side (hemisphere) of the brain to the other.
]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Brainstem
unstable and intense interpersonal relationships chronic fears of abandonment
chronic intense anger and loneliness
self-destructive behavior a range of cognitive problems or distortions such as suspiciousness, unusual feelings of having a sixth sense, and unusual superstitiousness unstable social relations and repeated failures in job situations impulsive behavior such as fighting, running away, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, promiscuity, and binge eating]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Borderline+Personality+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blockinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Blind+Spothttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Bipolar+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biopsychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biopsychological+Perspectivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biofeedbackhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Biastophiliahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behaviorismhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavior+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behavior+Modificationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basilar+Membranehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basic+Trusthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basic+Researchhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Basal+Ganglia
One example you are probably familiar with is Pentothal, also known as truth serum. This barbiturate (and the reason people refer to it as truth serum) is because it produces a drunken-like state during which people are less inhibited and more likely to tell the truth.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Barbiturateshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Babbling+%28babbling+stage%29dendrites (the neuron's input sites) and the terminal buttons (the neuron's output sites that are at the very end of the axon).

The signal always travels in the same direction - the signal comes into the neuron through the dendrites, through the cell body (soma), to the axon, and then out the terminal buttons to the dendrites of the next neuron. In this way information travels all around your body by going from neuron to neuron.

You can see an image of an axon (as well as two neurons) by going to: http://www.alleydog.com/images/2neurons.gif]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Axonhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Aversion+Therapyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Attitudeshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Applied+Research]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anal-Retentive+%28anal+stage+of+motivational+development%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Alexithymiahttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acculturationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary+Reinforcerhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Suppressionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cause+and+Effecthttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Antisocial+Personalityhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sociopathhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Privationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stressorhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Eustresshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Distresshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stresshttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Causation+%28Causality%29https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Schizoid+Personality+Disorderhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychodynamic+Perspectivehttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=School+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive+Regardhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ego+Strengthhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Counseling+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Community+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Differential+Psychologyhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Inhibitionhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Assimilationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Accommodationhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moodhttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Demand+Characteristic
For example, a researcher can use shaping to train a rat to press a lever during an experiment (since rats are not born with the instinct to press a lever in a cage during an experiment). To start, the researcher may reward the rat when it makes any movement at all in the direction of the lever. Then, the rat has to actually take a step toward the lever to get rewarded. Then, it has to go over to the lever to get rewarded (remember, it will not receive any reward for doing the earlier behaviors now...it must make a more advanced move by going over to the lever), and so on until only pressing the lever will produce reward. The rat's behavior was 'shaped' to get it to press the lever."

In this example, each time the rat is rewarded, it is being rewarded for a "successive approximation", or for acting in a way that gets closer and closer to the desired behavior.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Successive+Approximations
Note: if you actively try to forget these numbers, you probably won't be able to. So while some memories might be so painful they are repressed in an unconscious process, the idea of conscious, motivated forgetting is pretty questionable.]]>https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Motivated+Forgettinghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Higher+Order+Conditioninghttps://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Decibel