Cognitive Psychology Class Notes > Models of Memory
Memory:
maintaining information over time (Matlin, 1998)
the mental processes of acquiring and retaining information for later retrieval (Ashcraft, 1994)
Four Approaches to the Study of Memory
- Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)
- Levels of Processing Approach
- Tulving's Model
- Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
Atkinson-Shiffrin Multistore Model (1968)
Structural Features:
Sensory Memory
iconic memory
echoic memory
Short-Term Memory (STM)
verbal info is encoding acoustically
duration = 30 s (unless rehearsed)
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
relatively permanent store
info is encoded semantically
Control Processes:
Maintenance Rehearsal
in STM --> LTM
verbal repetition (it's acoustic)
Elaborative Rehearsal
in STM --> LTM
meaningful repetition (it's semantic)
[Craik & Lockhart, 1972]
Research:
Rundus (1971) - Serial Position Curve
primacy effect
recency effect
elimination of recency effect
Neurological Evidence
H.M. - epileptic (portions of temporal lobe & hippocampus removed)
STM is normal, but cannot learn new info
cannot transfer info from STM to LTM
K.F. - motorcycle accident (damage to left side of cerebral cortex)
has normal long-term recall but STM is limited
Problems:
model posits that STM and LTM are separate, distinct systems
Neurological Evidence
K.F. - how is this possible if STM is a gateway to LTM?
Short-Term Working Memory (Baddeley, 1982) as a better approach?
Levels of Processing Approach (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
shallow processing -
analysis of information based on physical or sensory characteristics
deep processing -
analysis of information based on meaning (e.g. images, other associations, past experiences)
Rehearsal
Maintenance vs. Elaborative
the more rehearsal you do differentially affects what you remember, depending upon the Type of Rehearsal you do
Research:
deep levels of processing should lead to better recall than shallow levels of processing
WHY?
distinctiveness - stimulus is very different from all other memory traces useful when trying to remember differences between similar itemselaboration - rich processing in terms of meaning
useful when trying to remember similarities between different items
generation effect:
we remember items better if we make them up ourselves rather than if people give us the items to
remembersea - o____sea - ocean
self-reference effect:
we remember more information when we relate that information to ourselves
does generous apply to you?
Problems:
circularity - what is deep?
if processing is deep, then retention will be better
if retention was better, then processing must have been deep
encoding specificity - we recall more info if the retrieval conditions match the encoding condtions
therefore, if retrieval conditions emphasize shallow features to be recalled, then shallow processing during encoding can lead to better recall than deep processing
Tulving's (1972, 1993) Multiple Memory System
episodic memory
autobiographical memory; personally experienced and remembered events of a lifetime
semantic memory
general world-knowledge (e.g. vocabulary, grammar)
you don't have an 'episode' in which you remember when and where someone told you for the first time 'that's a bird'
procedural memory
knowledge of 'how to' (difficult to verbalize)how to play a guitar
how to ride a bike
K.C. (motorcycle guy) know how to play chess (procedural), but cannot remember playing anyone (episodic)
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
Basic Tenets:
1. Memory is flexible can even deal with incomplete or inappropriate input.2. Content addressibiltiy: we can use attributes (e.g. color) to access info in memory.3. Varying effectiveness of cues: some cues work better than others
(penguin - 'has wings' vs. 'can't fly')
Characteristics:
1. networks of neuron-like units (neural nets)
2. parallel search processing
3. excitatory connections
4. inhibitory connections
5. spontaneous generalizations (making inferences/judgments about general info [English majors] that they never learned)
Do English majors tend to be politically liberal
6. default assignments (making inferences/judgments about a specific category of information that was never learned)
What is Nicoles [who is an English major] political preference?
never talked politics, but general category is activated and you would probably response LIBERAL
7. graceful degradation (activation of partial information [TOT])
