Echoic Memory -- humans remember sounds and words in slightly different ways. Memory
for sound is referred to as echoic memories, which can be defined as very brief sensory memory
of some auditory stimuli. Typically, echoic memories are stored for slightly longer periods of
time than iconic memories (visual memories). Echoic and Iconic memories are sensory
memories, not types of long-term memory, and thus are very temporary and fade quickly.
Effortful Processing -- this is just as the name implies; learning or storing (encoding) that
requires attention and effort. We have the capacity to remember lots of things without putting
forth any effort. However, there are lots of times when we must practice, rehearse, and try to
remember things. When we engage in any technique to help remember information better, we
are engaging in effortful processing.
Ego -- according to Freud, the ego is the part of personality that helps us deal with reality by
mediating between the demands of the id, superego, and the environment. The ego prevents us
from acting on every urge we have (produced by the id) and being so morally driven that we
can't function properly. The ego works according to the reality principle which helps us direct
our unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges to more acceptable targets. For example, when you
walk down the street and see an extremely attractive person, the ego, working on the reality
principle, helps us realize that it is not socially acceptable to cross the street, grab the person,
and have sex with them. Instead, the ego tells us that there will be other, more appropriate
people, places, and times to fulfill these needs.
Egocentrism -- according to Jean Piaget and his theory of cognitive development,
egocentrism is an inability on the part of a child in the preoperational stage of development to
any point of view other than their own. For example, little Suzy gets a phone call from her
father, who asks little Suzy if Mommy is home. Instead of saying, "yes", little Suzy nods her
head. Her father, hearing no response, asks again, to which little Suzy again nods her head. What
little Suzy fails to appreciate is that her father is unable to see her nodding. Little Suzy can only
take her own perspective - "I am nodding my head yes, why do you keep asking me this
question?"
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT; also known as Shock Treatment) -- a type of
biomedical therapy in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of a patient in order
to produce a chemical change. This treatment, although not practiced commonly, is most often
used to treat severely depressed people, and has been shown to work quite effectively. ECT fell
out of favor and was perceived as cruel and inhuman, but in recent years has regained some
popularity.
Electroencephalogram (EEG) -- a recording of the electrical waves of activity that
occur in the brain, and across its surface. Electrodes are placed on different areas of a person's
scalp, filled with e conductive gel, and then plugged into a recording device. The brain waves
are then attracted by the electrodes, travel to the recording device and then amplified so that they
can be more easily seen and examined. The EEG recording can be used to examine a variety of
brain functions including sleep (the different stages of sleep) and different psychological
disorders.
Embryo -- in human development, an embryo is what we call an organism in the early,
prenatal stage from about 2 weeks to 2 months after fertilization. The embryonic stage makes up
the majority of the first trimester and is a critical stage for "normal" cognitive and physical
development. In addition, the unborn baby is particularly susceptible to health problems (less
able to protect itself from illness and every little thing can have sever consequences down the
line - much more so than in other stages).
Emotion -- most people have little problem recognizing and identifying when we are having
an emotion. However, emotion is one of the most difficult concepts in Psychology to define. In
fact, emotion is such a difficult concept to define adequately that there are at least 90 different
definitions of emotions in the scientific literature. A simple definition of emotion is that it is a
response by a whole organism, involving (1) physical arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3)
conscious experience.
Empathy -- this is an ability to understand and feel what another person is feeling, not in a
physical sense, but in an emotional sense. The expression, "put yourself in someone else's shoes"
is actually a description of empathy. Therapists are usually trained to be more empathetic so that
they can have more of an appreciation for what their clients are experiencing. This helps them
understand their client's situation, perspective, and problems much better.
Empiricism -- The Philosophical school of thought that real knowledge comes from the
senses. This formed the basis for the foundation of modern science - the reliance on empirical
evidence, or evidence that is observable. You have probably heard the expression, "empirical
data" before...it is referring to any data that are observable through the senses.
Encoding -- any information which we sense and subsequently attempt to process, store, and
later retrieve must be brought in through one of the senses and then transformed into some form
that our bodies and minds understand. The process of breaking the information down into a form
we understand is the process of encoding (and we later "decode" the information to recall it).
But the process of getting into the memory system for storage and later retrieval is encoding.
Encounter Groups -- popularized in the '60s and again in the 90's, encounter groups are
gatherings of people (often between twelve to twenty) who go through a process of opening up
and sharing some emotional side or experience with the other members of the group. By opening
up and sharing such emotionally charged experiences, it is hoped that the members will get more
in touch with their own feelings, receive support from the other members of the group, and
become more socially aware of the feelings of others.
Endocrine System -- information travels through our bodies in two forms; as electrical
signals, or as chemical signals. The chemical signals are created and carried throughout the body
using the endocrine system. This system works more slowly than the electrical signals, and is
made up of glands that secret hormones (the carriers of the information) in the bloodstream.
Endorphins Ever go for a long jog and get the "runner's high"? Well, I never have either,
but supposedly once a person runs for a certain amount of time, their body begins to release
endorphins, the body's natural morphine-like pain killers. Endorphins help us deal with pain as
well as producing a pleasurable sensation. In fact, it has been suggested that some people
become avid runners in order to obtain the pleasure produced by their endorphins.
Episodic Memory -- the type of long-term, declarative memory in which we store
memories of personal experiences that are tied to particular times and places. For example, if
you are having a conversation with a friend and you tell your friend, "last night I went to a 9:00
movie..." you are recalling information stored in Episodic Memory. This type of memory is often
what comprises eye-witness testimony and is especially susceptible to subsequent events like
questioning, reading the newspaper, talking to others about the event, etc.
Equilibrium -- an organism's sense of body movement and position, including their sense of
balance. Equilibrium is affected by many things, including the functioning of the components in
the middle ear, alcohol, and drugs. Too much alcohol can produce that wonderful feeling of
"bed spins" - this essentially is a loss of equilibrium.
Equity -- often discussed in relationships, this is a situation in which people receive in
proportion to what they give to the relationship. Equity does not have to be identical or exact.
Consider, for example, household chores (this is a stereotypical example, but we use only to
illustrate the point). A wife takes care of the entire house and asks only that the husband takes
out the garbage twice a week and cut the lawn. However, the husband often forgets or ignores
this responsibility and when confronted, he feels that he should not have to do these things since
he "works hard all week long". As a result, both partied may perceive an inequity. She feels that
she does ALL the chores and work while her husband is unwilling to contribute to their lives - he
does much less than her; he feels that he must work in a high stress job all week and that being
asked to do these chores is just too much - she does much less than him. Inequity leads to
unhappy relationships and long term problems.
Estrogen -- one of the sex hormones that is necessary for proper female reproductive
functioning as well as the development of secondary female characteristics like breasts, less
facial hair than men, etc. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation,
rousing sexual receptivity.
Experiment -- one type of research method in which the investigator manipulates one or more
independent variables (IV) to determine the effect(s) on some behavior (the dependent variable)
while controlling other relevant factors. There are two types of experiments, the True
Experiment and the Quasi Experiment. A true experiment occurs when the investigator does two
things: 1) randomly assigns participants to groups (e.g., experimental and control); and 2)
manipulates at least one IV. A quasi experiment is almost the same, except now there is no
random assignment of participants to groups; only manipulation of the IV. In order to reach
"cause and effect" conclusions about the effect of the IV on the DV, you must use a true
experiment.
Experimental Condition -- to determine what effect an independent variable (IV) or
treatment may have on some measure, it is necessary to present that IV to members of a group or
condition. The participants who are presented the IV are considered the experimental condition.
For example, if I am studying the effects of 2 different pain medications of headaches, I may
give people who have headaches either Tylenol or Bayer (the treatment groups; thus in this
example there are two levels of the IV; one level is Tylenol, the other is Bayer, but both are part
of the experimental condition). I can then wait one hour and ask participants to rate the level of
pain they are experiencing (this would be the dependent variable or measure). If the amount of
pain in one group goes down significantly more than the other, I may conclude that one
medication is more effective than the other in reducing headache pain.
External Locus of Control -- a person with an external locus of control is more likely to
believe that his or her fate is determined by chance or outside forces that are beyond their own
personal control. This strategy can be healthy sometimes. Like when dealing with failure or
disaster, but can also be harmful in that it can lead to feeling of helplessness and loss of personal
control.
Extinction -- this term is from Conditioning and refers to the reduction of some response that
the organism currently or previously produced. In Classical Conditioning this results from the
Unconditioned Stimulus NOT occurring after the Conditioned Stimulus is presented over time.
In Operant Conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being
reinforced (for example, you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but you stop giving it a
treat or any other type of reinforcement. Over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the
command).
Extrinsic Motivation -- why do you work or come to class or study for a test? Do you do it
because you want to money, a degree, and good grades? If so, you are extrinsically motivated -
motivated to perform specific behaviors to achieve promised outside rewards or to avoid
punishment from others. You are not working at a job because you get a great feeling of personal
satisfaction from it or because it makes you feel good about yourself (that you are a good
person), but rather to gain some kind of reward. We are not saying there is anything wrong with
this. We are only trying to explain the concept to you.