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Memory: maintaining information over time (Matlin, 1998) the mental processes of acquiring and retaining information for later retrieval (Ashcraft, 1994) Four Approaches to the Study of Memory
Atkinson-Shiffrin Multistore Model (1968) Structural Features: Sensory Memory iconic memory echoic memory Short-Term Memory (STM) verbal info is encoding acoustically duration = 30 s (unless rehearsed) Long-Term Memory (LTM) relatively permanent store info is encoded semantically Control Processes: Maintenance Rehearsal in STM --> LTM verbal repetition (it's acoustic) Elaborative Rehearsal in STM --> LTM meaningful repetition (it's semantic) [Craik & Lockhart, 1972] Research: Rundus (1971) - Serial Position Curve primacy effect recency effect elimination of recency effect Neurological Evidence H.M. - epileptic (portions of temporal lobe & hippocampus removed) STM is normal, but cannot learn new info cannot transfer info from STM to LTM K.F. - motorcycle accident (damage to left side of cerebral cortex) has normal long-term recall but STM is limited Problems: model posits that STM and LTM are separate, distinct systems Neurological Evidence K.F. - how is this possible if STM is a gateway to LTM? Short-Term Working Memory (Baddeley, 1982) as a better approach?
Levels of Processing Approach (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) shallow processing - analysis of information based on physical or sensory characteristics deep processing - analysis of information based on meaning (e.g. images, other associations, past experiences) Rehearsal Maintenance vs. Elaborative the more rehearsal you do differentially affects what you remember, depending upon the Type of Rehearsal you do Research: deep levels of processing should lead to better recall than shallow levels of processing WHY? distinctiveness - stimulus is very different from all other memory traces useful when trying to remember differences between similar itemselaboration - rich processing in terms of meaning useful when trying to remember similarities between different items generation effect: we remember items better if we make them up ourselves rather than if people give us the items to remembersea - o____ sea - ocean self-reference effect: we remember more information when we relate that information to ourselves does generous apply to you? Problems: circularity - what is deep? if processing is deep, then retention will be better if retention was better, then processing must have been deep encoding specificity - we recall more info if the retrieval conditions match the encoding condtions therefore, if retrieval conditions emphasize shallow features to be recalled, then shallow processing during encoding can lead to better recall than deep processing
Tulving's (1972, 1993) Multiple Memory System episodic memory autobiographical memory; personally experienced and remembered events of a lifetime semantic memory general world-knowledge (e.g. vocabulary, grammar) you don't have an 'episode' in which you remember when and where someone told you for the first time 'that's a bird' procedural memory knowledge of 'how to' (difficult to verbalize)how to play a guitar how to ride a bike K.C. (motorcycle guy) know how to play chess (procedural), but cannot remember playing anyone (episodic)
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Basic Tenets: 1. Memory is flexible can even deal with incomplete or inappropriate input.2. Content addressibiltiy: we can use attributes (e.g. color) to access info in memory.3. Varying effectiveness of cues: some cues work better than others (penguin - 'has wings' vs. 'can't fly') Characteristics: 1. networks of neuron-like units (neural nets) 2. parallel search processing 3. excitatory connections 4. inhibitory connections 5. spontaneous generalizations (making inferences/judgments about general info [English majors] that they never learned) Do English majors tend to be politically liberal 6. default assignments (making inferences/judgments about a specific category of information that was never learned) What is Nicoles [who is an English major] political preference? never talked politics, but general category is activated and you would probably response LIBERAL 7. graceful degradation (activation of partial information [TOT])
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